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Ready-Mades and Contemporary Art


click to enlarge

Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp, In
Advance of the Broken
Arm
, 1915 (studio
photograph by Man Ray)

Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp,Fountain,
1917 (photograph:
Alfred Stieglitz)

It could very well turn out that there is not a single ready-made in the narrow sense among the works of Duchamp. As is reported by several articles of this magazine, Rhonda Shearer submitted strong evidence that Duchamp did not present any “real” ready-mades. According to Shearer the “ready-mades” are fakes, handmade imitations of the ready-made objects they pretend to be, or ordinary objects that were purposefully changed by Duchamp. The bicycle wheel wobbles, the snow-shovel with the title In Advance of the Broken Arm does not work and even the Fountain to all appearance is different from all urinals that Duchamp could have bought anywhere. Hector Obalk draws our attention to the fact that the existence of Duchampian ready-mades is questionable enough as it is (2) . Given Duchamp’s definition of the ready-made, according to which a ready-made is something that becomes a work of art by the mere choice of the artist, many of the works of Duchamp are ruled out already. This holds namely for those which he called “corrected” or “assisted” ready-mades, et cetera. These “ready-mades” were visibly changed by Duchamp. Furthermore there should have been at least one case where Duchamp presented his ready-mades to an art-world public. Actually ready-mades were shown to the public. This is true even for the period when Duchamp dedicated himself to the ready-made. Only once, however, could two of them be found in a gallery, and they were still not placed in the showrooms. This underlines the relevance of the research of Shearer and the ASRL, and the authenticity of the ready-mades becomes questionable all the more.

The importance of this discovery is due to the fact that the concept of the ready-made became so eminent to art, in particular to art of the second half of the twentieth century. We cannot imagine the art of the last decades without this notion of the ready-made. This brings us to the question of whether we have to revise our valuation of the art of the past 50 years in light of the findings of Shearer. I would like to show that the artistic treatment of the ready-made is still valid, regardless of it resting on error.

With respect to theory, it is crucial to know if there are “real” Duchampian ready-mades or not. If the works of Duchamp fail to be positive evidence for “real” ready-mades, this puts a serious question mark to approaches that rest on the indiscernible-thesis. According to Danto the indiscernible-thesis says that there are or could be two objects indiscernible by perception and yet one of them is a work of art and the other is not. Duchamp apparently cannot serve as confirmation of this thesis any longer.

In the realm of art, on the other hand, things are more complicated. Art refers to its material as much as to social facts. Accordingly the way it refers to itself usually does not depend on whether there can be drawn true or false propositions from this reflection. It may be conceded, though, that the new insights into Duchamp could depreciate such projects which Duchamp anticipated unrecognised. The originality of any


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Figure 3
Sherrie Levine, After
Walker Evans
, 1979

strategy towards the fake
(3)
is called into question. But even in this field recent aesthetic experiments are not yet obsolete. After Walker Evans by Sherrie Levine remains interesting, even though the artistic strategy of calculated faking and the discovery of the fake as fake was used by Duchamp long before. For her project Levine took photographs from reproductions of photos from Walker Evans, and thus produced photos that were not pictures from physical objects, but from photos. By way of this procedure the photos achieve a geistige (4) dimension that lacks the objects but the photos still look like the ones taken of physical objects by Evans – apart from some details such as sharpness. The photographs from Evans aim at objectivity and at documentary evidence, whereas the photos of Levine receive their expressiveness through the slightest differences which reveal their nearly invisible subject.

Even more interesting, however, are just those cases where art refers to concepts that are more immediately related to the ready-made. The cycle landscape by Alexander Ginter may serve as illustration for that.

II.

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Figure 4
Alexander Ginter,
Landschaft
(Provence),
1999 (installation view)

Ginter’s starting point, the notion of “landscape,” is so to speak the opposite of “ready-made.” Trees, meadows and deer seem to be somewhat out-dated. In so far as they continue to make our houses pleasing, they become more a matter of decoration than a matter of art. Thus, if a contemporary artist nevertheless dedicates himself to landscapes, it does not provoke particular interest. Yet Landscape still deserves our attention inasmuch as it shows, through subtle allusions to aesthetical concepts, how art gains a vantage point which cannot be undermined by new art historical evidence.


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Figure 5
Alexander Ginter, Landschaft
(Yucatan), 1999(installaton view)

The cycle Landscape consists of two parts. The first one, the title of which is Provence, is a series of canvasses which for the time being do not look particularly interesting. The second one, Yucatan, is an installation consisting of photography plus a linear arrangement of mounds of earth. The paintings – probably landscapes – show in the upper thirds black silhouettes (possibly hills or mountains or in one case an arch or a bridge). The silhouettes are reduced forms which exhibit only a few characteristics, pictograms of landscapes, as it were. On the lower part of each painting there is an area of earthy colours, of brown, yellow, and beige. Closer examination reveals that these fields, that, except for a margin of some centimetres, take up the lower two thirds of the canvasses, don’t consist of ordinary colours but of soil and sand applied to the white canvasses. Below each painting can be found a name: places in Provence in France. Apparently the paintings refer to their subject through their respective material. Yet one may reasonably doubt the authenticity of the material.

The installation, however, the arrangement beneath the small gallery of “landscapes,” seems to take into account those doubts. Above a still of nine mounds of earth with rectangular base hangs a row of photographic prints. These photos offer themselves as authenticating the respective mounds. Seemingly each photo shows a spot where the material of one of the mounds was taken from.

The ensemble gives the impression of being simple, even naïve. That is but a façade that conceals a cunning play with categories and expectations. Little by little we are drawn into this game. I will confine myself to an analysis of just some of the interesting points to show the subtlety of the work.

The overall theme of the cycle is “landscape.” What the cycle consists of, though, by no means are landscapes in a narrow sense, which is to say landscapes that refer mimetically to their subject. It’s rather the concept of pictorial reference that is analysed and cut up into its conceptual components, and it’s these components that are shown. At the top there is the reduced “form” and at the bottom there is the “material.” The relation of these paintings to their subject is a relation by way of methexis, of participation in the object to which they refer. The “truth” of these landscapes is the truth of “sense-certainty” about which Hegel says “we have to conduct […] receptive, that is we are to alter nothing in it [the object, the thing], as it presents itself.” Sense-certainty “immediately appears to be the richest kind of knowledge” and at the same time “the most abstract and poorest” (5) . Each of the micro-landscapes that is hidden in the earthen areas has a complex structure, and at the same time is almost monotonous, so that from a distance the pictures look alike. These “landscapes” deal with the genre “landscape” in that they take from the “concrete” landscape the most concrete but do not paint it but stick it on.

The concept which is hypostatized here is the landscape as ready-made, as ready-found soil. The procedure reminds us of Picasso who stuck the label of a Suzet bottle on a canvas as polemic against the realism of the


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Figure 6
Gerhard Richter, Atlas
, 1962-1996 tallaton
view,detail of a total
of 633 panels)

Academy. The landscape as ready-made is then made radical through the fact that the “stuck on” stuff, unlike the Suzet label, cannot even guarantee its own authenticity. For the series Provence the black silhouettes take over this function in a way, and the photos appear to have the same function for the installation. That the photos supplement the mounds of earth and not vice-versa is made clear through the relation to the Provence “landscapes.” Although photo­graphy is the genuine medium of landscape, it is replaced here by earth, the actual matter of the cycle, and serves as mere commentary. This impression is reinforced by the fact that the ensemble of photos aims more at constituting to an object. This handling of photography thus resembles the photo-installation Atlas of Gerhard Richter that was seen at the documenta X.

In spite of the impression we have for the moment, the key to the interpretation of land­scape must surely be that the arrangement undermines the strategy of authentication. The expectation that each photo corresponds to one mound of earth is wrong, because there really are nine mounds but ten photos. This raises the question whether we still have any reason to think that the mounds stem from the places that are revealed by the photos. On the other hand one might reasonably suppose that, even if there was the same number of photos and mounds, this does not prove anything.

As for the origin of the material, we are put into a state of uncertainty. So it’s not only the concept of landscape material and particularly the concept of authenticity.

III.

According to the above interpretation there can be no doubt that the concept of ready-made, an object that does not undergo any change for its use is essential for the Landscape, although Landscape cannot be reducedto this concept. Rather “ready-made” is used for an analysis of the notion of authenticity and the genre “landscape.” This holds regardless of the fact that Ginter apparently did not intend to deal with Duchamp. What is particular with the cycle landscape is not the application of the Duchampian concept but the expression of Landscape that is mediated through this concept.

The conclusion which emerges from what is shown above is, indeed, that such ways of appropriation are not proven wrong or out-dated by the recent research in Duchamp. We have some concepts with respect to which there is nothing they refer or even contradict, such as the concepts of ether or trinity, but which nonetheless gave rise to interesting artistic and even scientific discoveries. Insofar as art has, however implicit, referred to such concepts, it is not depreciated by the fact that those concepts became irrelevant to us. It’s the theories, not art, that have to be reconsidered if our concepts cease to be valid.

This still holds when art itself is engaged in theory. It would appear, then, that the research of the ASRL gives more reason to expect that the influence of Duchamp will continue rather than that the art of the art, however, must not be contented with carrying on as usual, even though the aestheticians are inclined just to do so.

Notes

1. Some important ideas of the second part of this article I owe to Constanze Berwarth and Elsbeth Kneuper(see Michael Ensslen: Kunst als Kultur der Gegenwart, Heidelberg 2000). Of course I take responsibility for the text. For correcting the English text I want to thank Sarah Skinner Kilborne.


2. Hektor Obalk, “The Unfindable Readymade“, Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal 1, no. 2 Articles (May 2000).

3. Stefan Römer recently published a comprehensive essay on the fake, Künstlerische Strategien des Fake.Kritik von Original und Fälschung, Köln 2001; See also Hillel Schwartz, The Culture of the Copy. Striking Likenesses, unreasonable Facsimiles, New York 1996.

4. I must apologise for leaving the German expression without translation. I feel somewhat uneasy about the translation of “geistige dimension” with “spiritual dimension,” though this may probably be the best one.

5. G.W.F. Hegel, Phänomenologie des Geistes (Hamburg: Hrsg. Hans Jürgen Gawoll, 1986) 69, my translation.

Figs. 1, 2
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

A Note on Duchamp/Saussure and the Mysterious Sign of Accordance

The Large Glass, on the evidence of Marcel Duchamp’s own notes from The Green Box, is the result of an attempt at a kind of pataphysical proof.Duchamp is looking to demonstrate that it is possible to isolate what he calls in his notes–“the sign of accordance”(1)(quite specifically). This is ultimately Duchamp’s aim and the test of whether his scientific experiment has been successful. What are the factors at work in this attempt? What are the conceptual tools at his disposal? The sign of accordance between what elements?
In Duchamp’s notes from the Green Box he makes reference to one element, namely, a succession “[of a group] of various facts” that seem to depend on each other under “certain laws.” He wants to determine the conditions which bring about the instantaneous State of Rest (extra-rapid; perhaps a photographic exposure; an indexical mark or trace) – that which brings a sudden halt to this succession of interdependent various facts. This accord (agreement/conformity) is between then, this State of Rest (a particular) and a choice of possibilities (authorised and determined by these certain laws). Here, as elsewhere,the thinly veiled language of photography and other physical-indexical processes is apparent in Duchamps notes. This much has already been noted by Duchamp scholars.
In another note from The Green Box Duchamp re-frames the problem in a slightly different way. Here, what was also previously an allegorical appearance has also become an allegorical “reproduction.”What remains unchanged in this other note is that the required proof is still the isolation of “the sign of accordance.”
A third re-framing of the problem by Duchamp – again from The Green Box – takes an algebraic turn: he writes a sort of ur-formula:
a

b

Here “a” is the instantaneous State of Rest or extra-rapid exposition (or exposure), whilst “b” is the (or a) choice of possibilities. Duchamp makes a point in his notes here to the effect that this ratio of “a” over “b” is not given by a resultant (say) “c,” but by the sign (the horizontal bar) that separates “a” and “b.” This is effectively
the sign of his pursuit…”look for it.”


click to enlarge
 Green Box
Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp,Deluxe
edition of the Green Box, 1934

And here also he writes a curious thing: as soon as “a” and “b” are known they become new units and lose their relative value. In other words, as soon as a and b become – somehow – concrete or qualitative, they lose their previously held abstract quantative character. Here again Duchamp rehearses the refrain of looking for the sign of accordance or rather of something else related to the concept of accordance (perhaps parallelism or something else?). Where else might we find a similar search?

Some speculations – hopefully not too idle. Duchamp seems to be searching for some process, some abstract relation, not dissimilar from the concerns of classical semiotics(2) – a theoretical discipline struggling to be born in the years prior to the First World War via the nineteenth century research and writings of, for example, William Dwight Whitney in America and Hippolyte Taine in France. For where can we find a similar set of problems articulated (almost during the same time)? Look at Ferdinand de Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics(3).Some of the parallels, at the level of ideas, with Duchamp’s writings from The Green Box, are quite uncanny (as in a kind of unfamiliarity within familiarity…). The interesting thing here is that, despite being at the beginning of a new Science of Signs, Saussure’s researches into the workings of language were tinged with a kind of madness and, in that sense, it makes a comparative study all the more compelling.
At the time Duchamp was formulating his ideas for The Large Glass, it appears untenable that he knew anything of Ferdinand de Saussure’s research. (Saussure wrote very little and published less.) Saussure’s Course, based on the notes of his students, was published posthumously by Payot in Paris in 1916, but there appears to be no biographical or documentary evidence that Duchamp ever read the book. However the “correspondences” were in the air at the time, and it should be of little surprise that these two thinkers where approaching similar intellectual projects – albeit from radically different directions.
So Saussure’s “sign of accordance”–how did he “look for it?”
What follows is a rather sketchy and caricatured version of (a small part of) Saussure’s Course but it will, possibily, go some way to illustrating some of the similarities in the thinking of these two very different “researchers.”
Because of his dissatisfaction with previous attempts to map out the specific and detailed contours of a study of language, Saussure set about the task himself and in doing so focused on what he saw as the most elemental characteristics. For example, Saussure had to first establish the building block of his discipline. How did he do this? He started from an act of speech from a specific spoken sound and as he saw it its accompanying idea. From this simple coupling, he articulates the beginning of a new social science.
A language…is a social institution. But it is in various respects distinct from political, juridical and other institutions. Its special nature emerges when we bring into consideration a different order of facts. A language is a system of signs expressing ideas, and hence comparable military signals and so on. It is simply the most important of such systems. It is therefore possible to conceive of a science which studies the role of signs as part of social life. It would form part of social psychology, and hence general psychology. We shall call it semiology…(4)


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Two-sided
psychological entity
Figure 2
Ferdinand de Saussure,
diagram for two-sided
psychological entity

So here we have Saussure’s momentous founding of a new social science. Its most elemental structure, according to Saussure, is “The Sign” which he illustrates thus(5)
: (Fig. 2)

What we have here is three ways of picturing what Saussure called a “two-sided psychological entity.” (6) In this diagram he is using (appropriately enough for a comparison with Duchamp and The Large Glass) an example of the word “arbor” where the concept or idea of “tree” sits above what Saussure calls the “sound pattern.” This “concept” has a relation with its “sound pattern” which involves a kind of two-way communication across the line that “divides” the two psychological entities. At one point in his notes Saussure also compares this relation to the two sides of a sheet of paper. Recto (say) is the idea or thought and verso being the sound pattern. “Just as it is impossible to take a pair of scissors and cut one side of paper without at the same time cutting the other, so it is impossible in a language to isolate sound from thought or thought from sound…Linguistics, then, operates along this margin, where sound and thought meet.”(7)

It is important to remember that what we have here is effectively a structural relationship between an idea and the mental imprint, if you like, of that idea’s articulation. Although Saussure called the sign “concrete,” in many ways it is actually an abstract construction, more or less. It, the Saussarian sign, is neither a relation between a spoken word and its concept nor a thing entirely in the world. As Saussure says, “A linguistic sign is not a link between a thing and a name, but between a concept and a sound pattern” and “…[a] sound pattern is the hearer’s psychological impression of a sound…”(8) Today, these structural features of the sign are known more familiarly. However, often they are misunderstood as “signifier” (the Saussurian “concept”) and “signified” (the “sound pattern”).
In the Saussurian view, moreover, the relation between the signifier and the signified is to a greater or lesser extent unmotivated, conventional relation here but ask for this to be taken–for the purposes of this short essay–as “given.” What this amounts to though is that signs (or potential signs) it can only be isolated by what it is not. Saussure says that. “…language itself is nothing other than a system of pure values…”(9) and that, the ultimate law of language is, therefore, dare we say, that nothing can ever reside in a single term. This is a direct consequence of the fact that linguistic signs are unrelated to what they designate, and that therefore “a” cannot designate anything without the aid of “b” and vice versa. In other words, both have value only by the differences between them, or neither has value, in any of its constituents, except through this same network of forever negative differences.(10)

So we have at this point a sign constructed of two conventionally related components (both psychological) which as a combination have value only in relation to what the combination is not. It is at this point that Saussure’s Course takes what I would call, an even more Duchampian turn. Look at this diagram(11) :


click to enlarge
Sign of accordance
Figure 3
Ferdinand de Saussure,
sign of accordance

Here we have, effectively, Saussure’s illustration of his sign of accordance.(Fig. 3) For in this diagram what haunts his ideas on the sign is the nature of the relation between the signifier (A) and the signified (B). However, look at that gap! A shifting nothingness sliced by the temporal relation with other signs. Moreover these “other signs” are never really present as such. What is more, a substitution of a form of ideogramme for a phonetic text derived from the Greek alphabet brings more clearly into focus the “vulgar” comparison with not only The Large Glass, but also, perhaps, begins to show the limitation of the Saussurian sign–one which (albeit unwittingly) I believe Duchamp was questioning.

Like the cleavage between The Bride and Her Batchelors, the relationship between the signifier and the signified is, coincidentally, a separation and a pulling together. Saussure indicates that the two elements of the linguistic sign are intimately linked.(12)Elsewhere in the Course, however, Saussure describes the relation between signifier and signified as mysterious. When it comes to establishing the nature of the “bar,” or the entity, that both separates and links the two entities of the sign together, Saussure starts to struggle (we might even say teeter) on the edge of Reason. Prior to this point in his Course his articulations have largely followed a form of logic.(13) But then…
Psychologically, setting aside its expression in words, our thought is simply a vague, shapeless mass. Philosophers and linguists have always agreed that were it not for signs, we should be incapable of differentiating any two ideas in a clear and constant way. In itself, thought is like a swirling cloud where no shape is intrinsically determinate. No ideas are established in advance, and nothing is distinct, before the introduction of linguistic structure.

But do sounds, which lie outside this nebulous world of thought, in themselves constitute entities established in advance? No more than ideas do. The substance of sound is no more fixed or rigid than that of thought. It does not offer a ready-made mould, with shapes that thought must inevitably conform to. It is a malleable material which can be fashioned in to several parts in order to supply the signals that thought has need of. So we can envisage the linguistic phenomenon in its entirety the language, that is as a series of adjoining subdivisions simultaneously imprinted both on the plane of vague, amorphous thought (A), and on the equally featureless plane of sound (B)…. Thought, chaotic by nature, is made precise by this process of segmentation. But what happens is neither a transformation of thoughts into matter, nor a transformation of sounds into ideas. What takes place is a somewhat mysterious process by which “thought-sound” evolves into divisions, and a language takes shape with its linguistic units in between those two amorphous masses. One might think of it as being like air in contact with water:changes in atmospheric pressure break up the surface of the water into a series of divisions, i.e. waves. The correlation between thought and sound, and the union of the two, is like that.(14)
Saussure is trying to grapple with the problem he has, himself, set up. For he is struggling, metaphorically, with a strange and mysterious confluence which, earlier in his notes, was a single fixed line (albeit one which entertained contrary vectors). We could perhaps go further and say that Saussure’s construction of the sign held within itself its own critique, and, further, it could be argued that Duchamp was more aware of this than Saussure. Within The Large Glass the relationship between the The Bride and Her Bachelors is represented by three (not one) glass bars which are subject to feeble and faltering breaches – both electrical and mechanical. In contra-distinction to Saussure’s amorphous “middle term,” even Duchamp’s middle has a middle.


click to enlarge

  • Large Glass
    Figure 4
    Photograph of the
    Large Glass
    at the
    Brooklyn Museum of Art,
    New York, in 1926
  • The 
Large Glass repaired
    Figure 5
    Marcel Duchamp, The
    Large Glass
    repaired, 1915-23

Before Duchamp’s Large Glass was broken and repaired the few photographs of it show that the division between The Bride and Her Bachelors was not as distinct as it is now. The repair of the two sections and the subsequent reframing have given The Large Glass a visual heaviness that it did not have when it was shown at the Brooklyn Museum in 1926. (Figs. 4 & 5) Then, although the heavy wooden frame almost semed to threaten to crush the work it seemed to maintain its visual lightness and physical integrity. Now of course, the heavy framework more brutally (but only visually) separates The Bride and, her fantasies, Her Bachelors. By 1936 Duchamp’s interests had moved on although to developments of very much related matters.


Notes :

Footnote Return 1. Marcel Duchamp, The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even: a typgraphic version by Richard Hamilton of Marcel Duchamp’s Green Box, trans. George Heard Hamilton (Stuttgart: Edition Hansjorg Mayer, 1976) unpaginated. All quotes are from this publication unless stated otherwise.

Footnote Return 2. In an unpublished Master of Arts dissertation, Richard Blakey, taking a “deconstructivist approach,” relates the machinations of Duchamp’s Large Glass via Saussure to Derrida – in his Of Grammatology – and Derrida’s critique of Saussure’s concept of the sign in Chapter 2 of that book. Here I am just trying to draw out a few (perhaps “naïve”) associations from a perspective of Art History/Theory. See: R.Blakey, “Duchamp andThe Sign,” diss., University of Sussex, U.K, 1991.

Footnote Return 3. Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, trans. Roy Harris (London: Duckworth, 1983).

Footnote Return 4.Ibid., p.15.

Footnote Return 5. Ibid., p.67.

Footnote Return 6. Ibid., p.66.

Footnote Return 7. Ibid., p.111.

Footnote Return 8. Ibid., p.66.

Footnote Return 9. Ibid., p.110.

Footnote Return 10. Jonathan Culler,
Saussure (London: Fontana Press, 1986), de Saussure quoted, p.52.

Footnote Return 11. Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, 111.

Footnote Return 12. Ibid., p.15.

Footnote Return 13.What contradictions exist within the text of the Course, and there are a few (whether due to the inconsistencies in Saussure’s exposition, interpretation by Saussure’s students, or his translator), they are not the subject here.

Footnote Return

14. Ibid., pp. 110-111.

Figs. 1, 4, 5
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

Rrose Selections

ORIENTATION
OF THE
PARASOLS

Picture A: half-moon of parasols, moving
like a caterpillar on a branch, arc of S.
shoes emerge from underneath
they are the chain which connects the pearls…
the necklace wraps around, gracefully,
but when the woman bends over the pearls come undone.

Picture B: parallel lines of color
on a beach in the South of Portugal.
Drinks are served. Glances are cast.
Eyes close with the image before them in mind.
Eyes close but the parasols, those parasols,
blooms of summer, narrowed to darts
thorns in a hand that pulls down the night,
are still on the beach when she asks,
knowing what she’s seen, “Can we go?”
to which he replies, having only watched her,
“My love, whatever you wish.”

ART


click to enlarge

Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp,
Female Fig Leaf, 1950

Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp, Given:
1. The Waterfall, 2. The Illuminating
Gas
, 1946-66

Figure 3
Marcel Duchamp, Nude
Descending a Staircase
, No. 2, 1912

Female fig leaf Reveals a landscape, reclined Leaves and twigs about her legs A lantern in the distance Water running softly, continually.
I peer through the peep hole. It is dark where I am and bright where she is, Hundreds of miles from home. I forget where I am from, taken in by the slit which is open and which is the only face that is exposed. Like the mouth of an adult who is towering, talking her clitoris is all I want to look at.Hot breath on my shoulder reminds, It is time for another’s turn.

1913
The blood of the city lights explodes onto a corner and covers a group of nine in uniforms they never imagined.Chatter ensues but the lady in stride crosses over[a line, infrathin]and is gone,leaving them exposed, barren in the corner of a city at night.On the building to one side,their shadows form spires but these men and one woman in front of the armory are bystanders only [in red]To them, the lady is naked. She is shame.She is the replaceable stair.

 

Figs. 1-3 ©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

Elena del Rivero and Marcel Duchamp: Les Amoureuses


click to enlarge
Elena & Rrrose
Figure 1
Elena del Rivero,
Les Amoureuses: Elena & Rrrose
2001 (Photo: Kyle Brooks;
© Photo 1963:
Julian Wasser. All rights reserved)

In the end, West Coast photographer Julian Wasser gave in to her gentle pleading and allowed New York-based artist Elena del Rivero to use his famous photograph of Marcel Duchamp, depicting the artist at the opening of his first major solo-show at the Pasadena Museum of Art in 1963, playing chess with a nude Eve Babitz . The result of del Rivero’s appropriation is a Duraflex C-type print of 30 x 36 inches titled “Les Amoureuses, Elena & Rrrose” (2001) (Fig. 1). The artist, seated in front of a collage of a photocopied and enlarged version of Wasser’s original, seems to be seated opposite Duchamp, almost entirely covering the body of the nude appearing behind her on the picture. The artist, wearing a long, pleated dress of golden color (Elena del Rivero: “I wanted to be a princess!”) is stringing up pearls of which a rather arge amount is gathered in her lap. Concentrated as she is in her work, the artist
takes on the pose of a seamstress passing time through monotonous, almost meditative work – a theme often explored throughout del Rivero’s oeuvre.


click to enlarge
Elena del Rivero, Las Hilanderas
Figure 2
Elena del Rivero,
Las Hilanderas
(The Spinners)
, 2001
(Photo: Kyle Brooks;
© Photo 1963: Julian Wasser.
All rights reserved)
The Spinners
Figure 3
Diego Velázquez,
The Spinners, c. 1657

Between July 11–28, 2001, del Rivero concurrently presented the installation [Swi:t] Home at The Drawing Center’s Drawing Room in New York, and Las Hilanderas (The Spinners) (Fig. 2) at the Dieu Donné Papermill (DDP) just around the corner. As Mina Takahashi, the executive director of DDP wrote in an accompanying foldout, [Swi:t] Home tracked the daily life in del Rivero’s home/studio (1)
“by registering movement and activities on large sheets of paper which she placed on the floor throughout her space […] The 60 x 40-inch handmade abaca sheets were fabricated at Dieu Donné with a watermark bearing Elena’s full name in a circular logo.” For Las Hilanderas (The Spinners), del Rivero, employing the age-old technique of paper-thread making, explores through a tableaux vivant of Velázquez’ well-known painting of the same name (ca. 1657) (Fig.3) Ovid’s myth of Arachne and the goddess Athenae. The young Lydian girl Arachne dared to challenge Pallas Athenae to a contest to see who could weave the most brilliant tapestry. After several days, Athena finished first. Hers was a brilliant tapestry depicting the gods and goddesses of Olympus. At each corner of Athena’s design she illustrated the punishments given to mortals who attempted to defy the Olympians. Arachne, however, rafted her tapestry as a retort to Athena’s. It was a magnificent portrayal of of the higher reality as well. But on her tapestry Arachne wove into the design a scandalous story of the love affairs between the gods and mortal women, revealing the gods’ more human-like faults. This insult angered Athena and she lashed out at the girl in rage. Arachne, hurt and broken, opted for suicide over the torments of Athena and desperately tried to hang herself. But feeling guilty at the suffering she caused the poor girl, Athena changed Arachne into a spider, just moments before her suicide was accomplished. Arachne,transfigured as a spider, never moved, but forever dangled on one thin string from her web.

In her artist’s statement for [Swi:t] Home and Las Hilanderas (The Spinners) Elena del Rivero describes her work thus:


click to enlarge
Titian
Figure 4
Titian, The Rape
of Europa
,1562

“Like all the best discoveries, transforming the leftover paper from [Swi:t] Home was a chance event. The ‘spinning’ of thread has allowed me to establish relationships with other female artists who have collaborated with me on this project. From the moment that I called my first collaborator a spinner, the die was cast: Las Hilanderas (The Spinners) by Velázquez started to wriggle in my head. I remembered my visits to the Museo del Prado to investigate all the meanings attached to the master’s brushstrokes. I know that my interpretation differs from that of the great scholars: to
me, the oldest woman in the group is Arachne. It may also be unorthodox to refer to Duchamp in relation to the tapestry representing Titian’s Rape of Europa (Fig. 4) in Velázquez’s painting. I am not measuring myself against Duchamp; I am simply outlining a possible dialogue through difference, one that, I think, Luce Irigaray might approve of. More important is the fact that I have been able to invite my mother to ‘spin.’ The thread has been an excuse to engage in talking again about how time goes by.”

And finally, the following is an excerpt of Rita Gonzales’ essay “How to Feed and Sustain a Fragment,” published in the 64pp. catalogue At the Curve of the World (Santa Monica: Smart Art Press, 1999) that accompanied the group show of the same name which took place at Track 16 Gallery, Santa Monica, September 11–November 6, 1999.


click to enlarge
Elena del Rivero
Elena del Rivero

Elena del Rivero
Elena del Rivero
© Elena del Rivero
&video artist Nacho Pereez.
All rights reserved.
Figures 5-9
Elena del Rivero,
still images from A Reading, 1998
Elena del Rivero
Figure 10
Elena del Rivero, Opening Tom
Patchett
, 1999
(Photo:Kyle Brooks)

To the show featuring works by woman artists Mariana Botey, E.V. Day and Diana Lopez, among others, Elena del Rivero contributed Echo of an Unfinished Letter, an intricate and layered record of the passage of time that takes the form of six hundred pages of musical notation paper imprinted with sound waves (the “echo”) produced by passing a needle and thread through paper. Visually stunning, Echo speaks – through its formal, emotional and performative power – of the hidden, devotional aspect of longing and creation.

The accompanying pictures (Figs. 5-9) are film stills from A Reading, showing Elena del Rivero with her Tarot teacher, a performance that took place during her Unfinished Letter exhibition at the Reina Sofia Museum in Madrid, 1998. The last photo showing del Rivero with Man Ray’s chess board is called “Opening Tom Patchett” (Fig. 10). She explains [in an e-mail to Tout-Fait of 13 August 2001: “He is a collector from LA and I was having a show at his space Track 16 [see above] and stayed at his place. Going into his bedroom I saw the chessboard by Man Ray in the edition of 1943.

Rita Gonzales writes:

“Elena del Rivero’s work seeks correspondence with an invisible audience sometimes figured as an absent mother, lover, or friend, and in the case of her recent video installation A Reading with the infamous image of Marcel Duchamp playing chess with a young nude woman. According to accounts in Bonnie Clearwater’s West Coast Duchamp (2) , no individual party (including Duchamp himself) took credit for the staging of this event at his Pasadena Art Museum retrospective exhibition in 1963. Dickran Tashjian has revealed that the woman in question, Eve Babitz, was in fact the grandaughter of modernist composer Igor Stravinsky. Tashjian intuits that her naked presence may have brought to Duchamp’s mind (among other things) a historical moment of rupture at which he was present–the first performance of Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring before a decidedly disturbed audience. Unlike del Rivero, critics of Duchamp have tended to shy away from this image, perhaps imagining that the event was a cheap publicity ploy (even though Duchamp himself held a strong fondness for it).

In her discussion of the ‘en-gendering’ of Duchamp’s work, art historian Amelia Jones represents the Pasadena chess game as a moment of frustration for those who believe they know everything about Duchamp. In this closed circuit of frustrated narrative and through other moments in his public address and writings, Jones finds her Duchamp articulated through his contradictions and discursive elisions.

He is not ‘simply’ modern or postmodern, authoritative or anti-authoritative, regressive or progressive, masculine (virile, original subject) or feminine (seductive object), heterosexual (paternal and generative) or homosexual (coquettish camp idol), but particularly llustrates the contingency of each of these terms on its supposed opposite. (3)

“These contingencies are perhaps what drew del Rivero to the infamous image of seduction and sublimation. She, like Jones, searches for a throughway to access the document and to play out her own critique of the en-gendering of art production. While in Spain for art exhibition of her massive series Unfinished Letter (1998), del Rivero staged a private performance, the end result of which was A reading (1998):

‘I asked the museum director [at the Reina Sofia in Madrid] if I could have the rooms closed for two hours. I had previously asked my tarot reader, whom I had not seen for seven years, if she could come to the Reina, read the tarot for me there, and be recorded. She accepted. I had two camera-people ready on that day, a candle, and a glass ball. The cameramen thought it looked OK. I had fetched a small table and two simple chairs. They were placed in the middle of the room, very much after the Duchamp photo. The séance started. It was recorded in actual time. It lasted thirty-four minutes….’(4)

“The final edited version of the video intermixes elements from an audio art piece entitled String Quartet (1998-99), the sound of which was captured during the embroidery of the six hundred sheets that make up del Rivero’s series Unfinished Letter. As String Quartet blurs and obscures the revelations of that tarot reader, the enigmas of the artist are preserved, echoing with humor the staging of the Duchamp photograph. It is the very difference between tarot and the chess game that del Rivero uses to address the contradictions in the philosophies and oeuvre of Duchamp and their subsequent effect on the readings and inscriptions of his work. A Reading draws on the ambiguity of Duchamp’s notions of art production as they shifted between ‘mysticism and the games,’ a phrase drawn from Duchamp’s own contradictory statements about art production as being pure sensation to associating art with pure concept. ‘I do believe in the mediumistic role of the artist,” said Duchamp at a Philadelphia Museum College of Art panel in 1961. A Reading allows del Rivero to inhabit the photograph and disturb the sense of disclosure and culpability felt by those who approach both the historical document and her own serial work looking for confessions. As Maria-Josep Balsach has so eloquently said of del Rivero’s work: “Perhaps it is an inverted movement–or a projection–of what has been the innate objective of twentieth-century art: To dislodge utopia and ostentatiously occupy the essence of the confronting and self-confronting ego, arising from the most intimate, dark, abominable recesses.’(5)


Notes

Footnote Return 1.Through the attacks of September 11, 2001, the home/studio of Elena del Rivero and her partner Kyle Brooks was destroyed. Luckily, both were unharmed. With the apartment located on Cedar Street, in the immediate vicinity of what came to be known as Ground Zero, they lost most of their work and documents.

Footnote Return 2.Dickran Tashjian, “Nothing Left to Chance: Duchamp’s First Retrospective,” in West Coast Duchamp, ed. Bonnie Clearwater (Miami Beach: Grassfield Press, 1993) 61-83.

Footnote Return 3. Amelia Jones, Postmodernism and the En-Gendering of Marcel Duchamp (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1994) 106.

Footnote Return 4.”Echo of an Unfinished Letter through a Reading of Tarot,” unpublished artist statement.

Footnote Return 5.Elena del Rivero: Cortas (Burgos, Spain: Espacio Caja de Burgos, 1997)7.

The Wicked and Unfaithful Song Of Marcel Duchamp To His Queen


click to enlarge

Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp, The Bride
Stripped Bare by Her
Bachelors, Even
, 1915-23

A weighted soul who believed in the purity and vitality of poetry,the poet Paul Carroll inherited from Dada and Surrealisman undisguised passion and iconoclasm.”The Wicked and Unfaithful Song of Marcel Duchamp to His Queen”of 1961 seems to resonate with a consequential reading of postmodern thought–“meaning” is literally a mere perception residing in the human mind … perhaps nothing more, and the presence of Duchamp’s posthumously revealed
Given: 1. The Waterfall, 2. The Illuminating Gas (1946-66),by musing on “Death” as “the only good joke.” In 1979, composer John Austin conducted a vocal piece based on the very same poem. Tout-Fait is delighted to present the juxtaposition of text, sound, and visual images
in order to induce an enchanted experience of various dimensions in simultaneity.

– Compiled by Ya Ling Chen

 
 

click to enlarge

Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp,Dust Breeding,1920,
from the Green Boxof 1934

Figure 3
Marcel Duchamp,Cemetery of Uniforms
and Liveries, No. 2
, 1914

Figure 4
Photograph of Duchamp’s studio,
1916-17

Figure 5
Photograph of
Duchamp’sUnhappy Readymade (1919) taken
by Jean Grotti or Suzanne Duchamp Grotti, 1920

A trifle pompously, your move, my love, among the mass of nerve- tissues in my cranium;and as you move you have become the last of my inconsequential ironies. At best,chess too just a question of pure chance.Films of dust girdle your body: for once

I shift you on the chess board, sweet, you will become a solution for which there never was a problem:that old itch for order which we like to hint exists in what we do. And yet, that blueprint I fashioned once for the motions of the body ended nice-ly in a cemetery

of empty uniforms: priest and bus-boy, butler, gendarme,undertaker, horseman—jointless.Art? A form of intimate hygiene for the ghosts we really are. More work, those wolftraps for the intellect (one must always work, sweet, to contradict one’s taste)— the hanger tack-

ed upright to the floor; that urinal I signed: R. Mutt; and that geometry textbook I tied to dangle in diagonal at a corner of my porch until, buffeted by raw winds, bleach—
ed by sun & sleets, it got the facts of life; or those glass discs twirling on the phonograph

to tease the ear and eye. How predictable poor Picabia became! And such a fool to bitch all day and thrash about and sob how slovenly God goes about his job. I’ll let you sit,
sweet, and move the Rook instead. Why not? Death is the only good joke.


A drawing by John Austin (1979)

The Wicked and Unfaithful Song Of Marcel Duchamp To His Queen(1979)



Composer:
John Austin
Performers:
Diane Ragains, Soprano
Robert Morgan, Oboe/English
Horn Michael Gamburg, Bassoon

NOTE: THE TEXT AND MUSIC OF “THE WICKED AND UNFAITHFUL SONG OF MARCEL DUCHAMP TO HIS QUEEN” ARE UNDER COPYRIGHT; DOWNLOADING OF THIS PERFORMANCE IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED.

 

* Special
thanks to Maryrose Carroll and Luke Carroll for authorizing Tout-Fait to publish this poem.

Figs.1-5
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris.All rights reserved.

Nude Descending Again


click to enlarge
Rrose Sélavy
Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp, Rrose Sélavy,
photograph by Man Ray, 1921

Duchamp, the anti-artist, has always fascinated me to the point of envy. His irreverent behavior and ground-breaking ideas were so engaging that they force me to rethink my work and its purpose. His work is humorous to the passerby yet far more intelligent than any work of its time. The idea, rather than the product, was his focus. He was the greatest, laziest person ever.

Instead of creating a sculpture of a woman he became one (Rrose Sélavy). Instead of creating something that looked like a urinal he used an actual one. Instead of cleaning the dust off the glass he and Man Ray just took a photo of it.

I am a painter by training but I feel it takes too long to paint a good painting. So I began to experiment with my work by turning photography into painting. I feel as though I have found a new window of photography that has not been explored and treated as I have been doing. I have never seen results like that which I have been producing. I shoot in complete darkness with an open shutter and compose these paintings with light.

With this photograph, in particular, I wanted to recreate Duchamp’s famous yet “absurd” take off on Futurism and Cubism. This photograph and my work in general have received much of the same criticism that his painting did.

click images to enlarge

  • Nude Descending
  • Nude Descending Again
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Marcel Duchamp,
    Nude Descending a Staircase,
    No. 2
    , 1912
  • William Richard Hundley,
    Nude Descending Again, 2001

This shot is one of 20 negatives attempting the Nude. I have plans to use all the images in one frame in the form of a lenticular (3-D) print. As the viewer walks across the frame the images shift from one to another.

I currently reside in Austin, TX and collaborate with a friend on more painting-based photographic work. Our recent body of work has taken influence from the paintings of Francis Bacon. We call ourselves the Industry of Light and our new body of work is titled “Innocent X.”

Please view it online at www.williamhundley.com

William Richard Hundley Industry of Light

Figs. 1, 2
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

Transformation and Tradition: Interview with Sanford Biggers

click images to enlarge

Four images from: Sanford Biggers, Duchamp in the Congo (Suburban Invasion), Performance 1999 Photo: Art Meyers

Dressed in a suit and tie, Sanford Biggers entered a Chicago diner teeming with businesspeople. Briefcases in hand, they exchanged small talk and serious nods. Biggers clung to his own briefcase while slowly taking a seat, alone, at the counter to order breakfast. At their tables, diners drank coffee and held open newspapers. But between crisp folds and shuffles of the news in front of them, they noticed a very different text at Biggers’ side. Biggers, perhaps unbeknownst to his audience, was performing Duchamp in the Congo (Suburban Invasion) , his latest performance. His “newspaper” was Hangman’s House , the first of two artworks created for the performance. Hangman’s House is an old, fraying hardcover book entitled Hangman’s House , through which Biggers drove nails and sharp objects to puncture the cover and pages inside.

Biggers, 31, is an artist who now resides in New York City after living in other American and international cities. In a rare confluence, he applies Dadaist techniques to reconsider objects of power, cultural signatures, and African traditions. To objects of contemporary familiarity, Biggers adds symbolic and traditional elements, some mundane and others seemingly misplaced, to forge postmodern tributes to the African roots of modernism.

As Biggers carried Hangman’s House while performing Duchamp in the Congo (Suburban Invasion), the only words legible were those of the book title. When he exhibits the book outside the context of his performance, he uses a bookstand which spreads the covers open to reveal the entire piece. The piece rests on a transparent surface and a mirror underneath the book reveals some cover text on the underside.

The second piece Biggers created for the performance shares the title of the performance, Duchamp in the Congo. A wheel sits on the inside of a block of wood, pushing through its surface. Leather straps, twine, rope, and various fibers tightly tie the wheel to the block of wood. This construction is Biggers’ briefcase– the wheel extends from the block to form a handle.


click to enlarge

Figure 1
Hangman’s HouseUnited States: New York:
Century, 1926 and United Kingdom: London:
Sampson Low, Marston, 1926)
The book, now out of print, is a story by
Donn Byrne about an Irish judge who sentences
several people to a hanging death and urges his
daughter against her will to marry a man who
becomes the target of an avenger. The story
was made into a movie directed by John Ford in 1928.

The form of Duchamp in the Congo draws on traditional African rituals, specifically those involving the captivity of spirits and their power ( minkisi ) into objects. Nail figures (or nkisi n’kondi), were traditionally carved by indigenous people within the Congo in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and symbolize a ritual of collective oath-taking in which participants drive nails or sharp iron pegs into an object of power to symbolize their agreement and compliance with community codes, customs, and mores. Each stake remains where driven, and each individual’s penetration into the object qualifies their commitment while further activating the power of the figure to guard and secure the community.

To frame his performance, Biggers imagined what Marcel Duchamp would have created having traveled to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He depicts a fictitious trip that Duchamp took to study African works of art and then create an nkisi-influenced or nail-inundated wheel.

Biggers explained that after he created the two pieces for Duchamp in the Congo (Suburban Invasion) , the next step was his execution of a ritual. He chose to perform a present-day activity to echo traditional rituals of collective oath-taking: dressed as a businessman he enacted a typical commute to work, and displayed Duchamp in the Congo and Hangman’s House by carrying the two through the streets of Chicago during rush hour.

For a commuting suburban audience, Biggers clings to his own spiky “briefcase” while reading Hangman’s House, with its sprouting nails, as his newspaper. Carrying his artworks as he would everyday objects in familiar ways down busy streets, he reads his paper as if curious to learn something new. By imitating the form of a daily trip to work while contradicting it with the content of the objects he holds, he draws his audience directly to his art. Biggers challenges commuters to glance beyond their everyday concerns and the certainty of their paths to examine the symbols of the collective oath they take to perceive, inquire, and behave as they do everyday.

Beyond a Dadaist appeal to more closely examine commonly perceived truths, Duchamp in the Congo (Suburban Invasion) revives other salient themes introduced by modernists in the early and mid nineteenth century. By performing during rush hour, Biggers blurs the boundaries between art and everyday life and engages the public in a live dialogue. By adopting African rituals, he makes the inspiration of non-industrialized, non-Western cultures and values on modernism explicit. He revisits a time when artists typically looked at traditions from Africa, Asia, and the pre-Columbian Americas to define modernism and he continues in the current era where they left off. Each piece made for the performance is a retrospective of modern art from the post-modern perspective. The wheel included in Duchamp in the Congo serves as a reference to Duchamp’s Bicycle Wheel (Fig. 2).

click images to enlarge

  • Figure 2
    The Bicycle Wheel, 1913, is Duchamp’s first “Readymade”
    While it has been “lost,” scholars have found at least 5
    photos of it in his New York studio. The irregular leg
    positions of the stools and the tilt of the wheel and
    fork were never (one could argue) in equilibrium. In fact,
    Duchamp would have had to glue the stools into their
    irregular shapes, and tie string to support the five
    bicycle wheels and stools, in order to permit
    them even to stand, let alone spin.
  • Figure 3
    Nkisi n’kondi, 19th century

As Biggers explained it to me, “before a ceremony, ritual or some celebratory act that the whole community is involved in, people walk by the sculpture or image and pound nails, shards of glass, and sharp or reflective objects into the piece. The piece becomes a power object not only by the veneration that this group of people put on the piece, but the physical activity of pounding and hammering into the piece. Later, the piece itself acts almost as a type of scarecrow to ward off enemies, evil spirits and others who may harm the group. So in the case of the Hangman’s House, I used that as an aesthetic metaphor for banishing the history of America, being the Hangman’s House, the house of so much lynching. In terms of Duchamp in the Congo , I was using the nails to go against the notion of modernism and primitivism, so in this case instead of warding off physical spirits or enemies, there is a warding off in the psychological or philosophical sense of erroneous notions and traces of modernism, primitivism, and post-modernism.”

In the photographs of Biggers on a train during the performance, people look at him inquisitively. He recalls standing on a corner in downtown Chicago where another man behind him, briefcase and newspaper in hand, gives him incredulous looks as if to confront him. But this type of response reveals the larger confrontation at work by Biggers. As he elaborated, “I follow the idea of keeping the form as one of the most important elements but also feel strongly about challenging prescribed notions in art theory. The fact that I am the creator or author of these pieces also adds to how these pieces are interpreted by art theory. In that respect, I think it follows that Duchamp’s Dada approach is to juxtapose objects and concepts with the norm.”


click to enlarge

Figure 4
Mandala of the B-Bodhisattva II
Sanford Biggers and David Ellis, 2000

Figure 5
Mandala of the B-Bodhisattva I
Sanford Biggers, 1999

Figure 6
Disks Bearing Spirals
Marcel Duchamp, 1923

Biggers collaborated with another artist, David Ellis, for a break dancing mat project, Mandala of the B-Bodhisattva II , 2000. Ellis focused on preserving the idea of Duchamp’s Rotoreliefs of 1935, six double-sided optical disks made after prior experiments with optics such as Disks Bearing Spirals of 1923 or Rotary Demisphere (Precision Optics) of 1925. Each one of the Rotoreliefs bears a spiral, eccentric-circle, or similar design. When placed on a record player or other spinning circle, the Rotoreliefs create an optical illusion of depth, intensified when looking with one eye rather than two. I asked Biggers about connections between the mats and the Dadaist celebration of mechanical methods apparent in the Rotoreliefs.

Biggers replied, “my approach had to do more with the Mandala, so there was an overlap there in terms of the circle-based art form, but for me the Rotorelief was not used as literally as in Ellis’ work. However, the motive was to use the concept on a more geometrical level with the juxtaposition of circles as well as other geometries to create the illusion of movement. To enhance this effect, the dancers create the movement as opposed to a turntable’s rotation.”

He continues, “One reason we worked on this project was my fascination with the Mandala and Ellis’ fascination with the Rotorelief for shared conceptual and aesthetic reasons. We have both been DJs and are deeply into preserving hip hop culture. For us it was the idea of spinning and turning more importantly than the Mandala or the Rotorelief, but these were ways for us to deal with the idea of the spin–the backspin, the spin of a skateboard wheel, or the spin of the turntable–and finding a graphic representation of that idea. The spin is also important in that it goes back to several traditions–whirling dervishes and other dancers going into trance, in Yoruba and Vodoun ceremonies. This reminds me of an interesting fact about the Mandala–sometimes monks don’t actually draw or depict the Mandala, but they remember the patterns and then dance and jump in circles to form it with their own motions. We know the trace and graphic depiction of the Mandala and the Rotorelief, but I thought it was interesting to explore how to experience or create the sense of movement as the actual depiction.”

click images to enlarge

Rotary Demisphere (Precision Optics)
Marcel Duchamp, 1925

Biggers recommends They Came Before Columbus for this issue’s Bookstore section. Upon hearing this suggestion, I mention a review of the PS1 show at New York City’s Clocktower Gallery last year. One of the artists, David Godbold, did a cynical piece about the Mayflower, using a comic-like motif against a traditional piece. His installation, entitled America[s] Disclosed 2000 , is a wall painting that presents the initial discovery of America by the Europeans as erroneous. Biggers comments that Godbold’s piece “looks at colonialism, dispelling the belief of Manifest destiny, the grand romanticism of colonialism and the current reality of post-colonialism both here in America and Cuba as well as the relationships between sovereign and colonial nations and the people that they colonize. My work touches on the colonial and post-colonial history of the African Diaspora, however, I use Africa more as a metaphor for African America, and not the other way around. It also relates to what we mentioned of art theory and that being a type of colonial mentality.”

For my last question, I inquire about any connections between Duchamp’s concept of a ready-made item and items found in Biggers’ work. I wondered specifically about Biggers’ appropriation of objects to explore issues of class and race. Biggers replies that although he was trained as a painter, he began to take more interest in making three-dimensional objects. He describes that one of the things drawing him to this decision was the realization that objects found on the street, often marked by a particular type of use and treatment and grouped with other objects, often already said what he intended to create. “It isn’t about depicting–it’s about seeing authenticity right in front of you.” Biggers elaborates,”‘Use patina,’ the way the paint falls off, the way a chair is rubbed on the arms because someone kept sitting in the chair in the same way over time, molding the chair itself– it serves as a quiet tribute to history. Different areas where I would find materials, like a poor neighborhood in Baltimore versus an upper class neighborhood in Japan, said different things. I started to find out what areas had different items to collect. I could find a piano for example, in one part of town, where somebody might just throw that kind of thing out. A physical mapping of various cities began to emerge based on the artifacts I found in certain neighborhoods. I have used this approach in several countries and it gave me an “in” to the social geography of any given region. I was originally drawn to objects that were used by individuals and later become interested in mass produced materials that were used by many people. For example, the color tiles that are used in the Mandalas are the same tiles used on the subway and bus floor of Brooklyn, Harlem, and most of Inner-City U.S.A.”

In his work, Biggers provides us with the synthesis of the mundane and the extraordinary, historical testimony and present-day realism, tradition and transformation.

click images to enlarge


Sanford Biggers, Hangman’s
House
, 1999

Fig(s). 2, 6, 7
©2005 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

R. rO. S. E. Sel. A. Vy

1. L’odissea dei Rammendi

1a. Tre Rammendi Tipo


click to enlarge
Three Standard Stoppages
Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp,
Three Standard Stoppages, 1913-14

E’ già stato ampiamente discusso dagli studiosi il fatto che la procedura operativa descritta da Duchamp per la realizzazione deiTre Rammendi Tipo (1913-14) (Fig. 1) non sembra essere attendibile. L’evidenza sperimentale fa infatti escludere la possibilità di ottenere qualcosa di simile ai Rammendi di Duchamp. Non solo, ma una ispezione dell’opera esposta al MOMA ((Museum of Modern Art in New York City) evidenzia delle imbastiture sul retro delle tele di supporto, che definitivamente sembrano escludere quanto descritto nella celebre nota della Scatola Verde. Tutto questo è accuratamente documentato da Shearer & Gould (1999), i quali tuttavia precisano anche l’insistenza con cui Duchamp, esplicitamente intervistato a proposito, conferma la veridicità del contenuto della nota. In questo primo paragrafo intendo presentare alcune considerazioni sull’argomento.


click to enlarge
Marcel Duchamp,Tu m’, 1918
Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp,Tu m’, 1918

Una semplice misurazione mostra che la distanza (in linea retta) fra i due capi visibili di ciascuno dei tre Rammendi è costante. Ciò è evidenziato anche dal fatto che in Tu m’ (Fig. 2), di cui parleremo più avanti, Duchamp presenta i Rammendi accuratamente appaiati, capo contro capo. Ora, è assolutamente improbabile che tre fili che cadono liberamente si dispongano mostrando tre volte di fila la stessa distanza da un capo all’altro. Ciò sembra confermare una volta di più l’impossibilità pratica di ottenere un risultato come quello presentato da Duchamp seguendo le istruzioni della nota della Scatola Verde.

Tuttavia, se Duchamp sostiene caparbiamente di essersi attenuto a quel protocollo operativo, questa insistenza deve farci riflettere. E’ vero che la sua opera è disseminata di tranelli e di ambiguità volutamente fuorvianti; tuttavia usualmente Duchamp opera in modo che siano i nostri sensi ad ingannarci, e non le sue parole; in altri termini la sfida che egli ingaggia con l’osservatore è una sfida leale, mantenuta costantemente su un piano di correttezza: le tracce potranno essere volutamente rese ambigue, tuttavia sono messe davanti all’osservatore nella loro oggettività: sta all’osservatore leggerle con razionalità.

E’ interessante notare che nei Tre Rammendi Tipo, Duchamp sembra dissimulare accuratamente l’uguaglianza delle sei misure in linea retta dei fili e delle loro sagome di legno.


click to enlarge
Miniature version of Three Standard Stoppages
Figure 3
Marcel Duchamp,
Miniature version of Three Standard Stoppages,
in Boîte-en-valise, 1941

Osserviamo come li dispone Duchamp, quando i fili e le sagome siano posti verticalmente (come suggerisce l’orientamento dell’etichetta di testo di ogni filo). Per questo scopo considererò la riproduzione miniaturizzata dei Tre rammendi Tipo della Boite-en-valise (1941) (Fig. 3), perché è la sola rappresentazione che io conosca dove tutti e sei le componenti (3 fili e tre sagome) sono sicuramente disposte da Duchamp stesso. Ma simili considerazioni potrebbero essere fatte anche per tutte le altre disposizioni che io conosco, inclusa quella al MoMA.

Mentre le etichette poste vicino al lato inferiore delle tele sono accuratamente allineate l’una con l’altra, i fili sono incollati a partire da differenti distanze dal lato superiore, e ciò preclude la possibilità di confrontarne a colpo d’occhio le lunghezze e l’allineamento delle estremità superiore ed inferiore dei tre fili. Si potrebbe imputare questo sfasamento alla casualità della caduta. Si ricordi tuttavia che Duchamp tagliò le strisce di tela su cui sono incollati i fili dopo l’esecuzione dell’opera, in un tempo differito, diversi anni dopo; così come Duchamp pose attenzione all’allineamento delle etichette, avrebbe ugualmente potuto porre la stessa attenzione per l’allineamento dei punti iniziali dei fili. Analoghe tecniche di dissimulazione sono utilizzate anche per la presentazione delle sagome di legno. Per prima cosa, l’ordine di presentazione dei tre fili (F) è, diciamo, FA, FB ed FC, mentre le sagome (S) sono presentate nell’ordine SC, SA, SB. Secondo, le sagome sono ruotate di 180° rispetto ai fili corrispondenti, rendendo ancora una volta difficile il confronto a colpo d’occhio. Terzo, per poter sovrapporre la sagoma sul corrispondente filo, dobbiamo mentalmente ribaltare le sagome SC e SA, perché i loro profili mostrano una simmetria assiale rispetto ai corrispondenti fili FC e FA. Lo schema risultate è questo:

Fili (F)
  Sagome (S)
FA
FB
FC
SC
SA
SB
rotazione
a 180° & ribaltamento
rotazione
a 180° & ribaltamento
rotazione
a 180°

Infine, mentre in due sagome il punto di partenza del profilo curvilineo è evidenziato da una tacca ben incisa nel legno (e ad uguale distanza dal lato superiore), nella terza abbiamo ancora una volta uno sfasamento (in avanti) del punto di partenza del profilo curvilineo. (Con quest’ultima sagoma sembra tuttavia che Duchamp intenda fornirci un piccolo indizio, perché qui manca l’incisione della tacca nel punto di partenza del profilo curvilineo: una difformità che balza subito all’occhio).

Non sappiamo se questi spiazzamenti nella disposizione degli elementi della composizione sono casuali o no (noi sappiamo tuttavia che Duchamp era molto meticoloso nella pianificazione e preparazione delle sue opere). Se no, possiamo pensare che ciò che viene nascosto così meticolosamente deve assolutamente avere una grande importanza. Nel caso contrario, possiamo almeno capire perché, fina ad ora, gli studiosi non hanno considerato il dato oggettivo che sto discutendo, in relazione alle nuove difficoltà che introduce per l’accettazione del protocollo operativo dichiarato da Duchamp per i Rammendi.

Quindi, comunque sia, le distanze fra i capi visibili dei fili sembrano essere un punto cruciale.

Ora, ammettendo che effettivamente Duchamp abbia lasciato cadere i fili, allora deve esservi stato un qualche dispositivo per mantenere costante la distanza fra i due capi nel corso della caduta. A questo punto si possono congetturare diverse possibili di tecniche esecutive, compatibili 1. con quanto possiamo vedere nei Rammendi; 2. con ciò che è descritto nella nota della Scatola Verde; 3. con quanto dichiarato da Duchamp in diverse interviste. A titolo di curiosità ne presento un paio.

Il primo ipotetico dispositivo può essere un semplice tutore, come nello schizzo in Fig. 4 — il tutore dovrebbe cadere assieme al filo.

Stoppages Device 1
Fig. 4
Stoppages Device 1

Le eccedenze di filo rispetto alla regolare lunghezza di un metro, visibili alle estremità del dispositivo, costituirebbero i due tratti di filo necessari per l’imbastitura che in ogni Rammendo osserviamo nel lato posteriore delle tele (essi potrebbero avere già infilato l’ago necessario per l’imbastitura).

Un altro dispositivo, illustrato in Fig. 5, potrebbe essere costituito da due guide verticali; anche in questo caso potremmo avere le due eccedenze di filo per le imbastiture alle opposte estremità del filo.

Stoppages Device 2
Fig. 5
Stoppages Device 2

Sebbene dobbiamo considerare questi dispositivi come mere congetture, dobbiamo almeno riconoscere che in tutti e due i casi, durante la caduta essi permetterebbero al filo: 1. di torcersi a proprio piacere; 2. di mantenere quella morbida linearità che con una caduta completamente libera pare impossibile ottenere, 3. di mantenere costante la distanza fra gli estremi del filo. Inoltre (fatta salva qualche maliziosa reticenza): 4. la procedura descritta dalla nota della Scatola Verde risulterebbe veritiera, 5. Duchamp non avrebbe mentito nelle interviste.

Comunque sia, nei Tre Rammendi Tipo possiamo considerare due punti fissi A e B, e tre linee che passano per essi, come mostra la Fig. 6.

Axiom of three lines
running through two
fixed points
Fig. 6
Axiom of three lines
running through two
fixed points

Ciò può evocare alla nostra mente l’assioma euclideo dell’esistenza e unicità della retta per due punti. Come è noto, il motivo dei Rammendi ricompare spesso nell’opera di Duchamp, e basandosi su questo elemento, egli sviluppa numerosi ed importanti concetti. Non sembra essere arbitrario pensare a quest’opera come una sorta di assioma a partire dal quale Duchamp deduce la costruzione dell’intero edificio della sua opera (geometrico, ma non solo). Ma, cosa asserirebbe questo assioma?

Col suo modo strambo e apparentemente ingenuo, pare che Duchamp intenda rimuovere dall’assioma euclideo l’assunto di unicità della retta per due punti: le rette per due punti sarebbero infinite, tutte quelle ottenibili dal caso attraverso la caduta del filo, ed i Tre Rammendi starebbero in rappresentanza di esse (dopo tutto occorre ricordare che spesso in Duchamp il numero 3 sta per molteplicità o infinità). Di fatto sappiamo da tempo dell’interesse di Duchamp per le geometrie non euclidee. Henderson afferma che

Per Duchamp le geometrie n-dimensionali e non euclidee erano stimoli per andare al di là della pittura a olio tradizionale per esplorare le relazioni fra le dimensioni e anche per riesaminare la natura della prospettiva tridimensionale. Come Jarry prima di lui, anche Duchamp trovò qualcosa di deliziosamente sovversivo nelle nuove geometrie, con i loro cambiamenti di così tante ‘verità stabilite’. (341)

Comunque, l’operazione concettuale di Duchamp è meno ingenua di quanto possa sembrare a prima vista. In geometria, concetti come punto, retta, piano e così via non vengonodefiniti: essi sono enti o concetti primitivi; essi sono indirettamente definiti dando le loro regole d’uso, che sono assiomi e teoremi; in altre parole, in una assegnata geometria, retta,punto, o piano… possono essere qualunque cosa che si comporti esattamente secondo gli assiomi e i teoremi di quella geometria. Ad esempio, nel celebre modello di Poincaré di geometria iperbolica, piano è rappresentato da un cerchio, e retta è un particolare arco di circonferenza. Nei Tre Rammendi Tipo di Duchamp sembra esservi una consapevolezza di questo aspetto; d’altra parte è noto che Duchamp amava leggere testi di geometria e in particolare conosceva alcuni aspetti del pensiero di Poincaré, come anche Shearer ha evidenziato in Marcel Duchamp’s Impossible Bed and Other ‘Not’ Readymade Objects…(26–62).
Tuttavia, ciò che interessa nella prospettiva di questo articolo, non è tanto il possibile contenuto non euclideo dell’assioma dei Rammendi, ma la rimozione dell’assunto di unicità. Attraverso questo assioma Duchamp sembra affermare un nuovo principio: quello dellaripetizione, o più precisamente quello della iterazione di uno stesso procedimento seguendo accuratamente una stessa regola.

1b. Reticolo di Rammendi


click to enlarge
Network of Stoppages
Figure 7
Marcel Duchamp,
Network of Stoppages, 1914
Young Man
and Girl in SpringYoung Man and Girl in
Spring (1911), rotated 90°
Left: Figure 8
Marcel Duchamp,Young Man
and Girl in Spring
, 1911
Right: Figure 9
Young Man and Girl in
Spring (1911), rotated 90°

I Rammendi ricompaiono in una nuova opera elaborata nel medesimo periodo: il Reticolo di rammendi(1914) (Fig. 7). Il reticolo è dipinto sulla seconda versione incompiuta del giovanile Giovane e Fanciulla in Primavera (1911) (Fig. 8). Cominciamo col notare che rispetto all’orientamento originale di Giovane e fanciulla in primavera lo sfondo del Reticolo è ruotato di 90°. (Fig. 9)E’ noto che la rotazione ad angolo retto in Duchamp ha importanza e significato del tutto particolari (vedi per esempio Gould & Shearer); questa rotazione usualmente denota il passaggio da uno spazio ad n dimensioni ad uno ad n+1 dimensioni (perché l’aggiunta di una nuova dimensione richiede l’aggiunta di un nuovo asse cartesiano, perpendicolare a ciascuno dei precedenti). In questo caso abbiamo il passaggio dalla monodimensionalità di ciascun Rammendo alla bidimensionalità del Reticolo. Ma più in generale in Duchamp la rotazione a 90° indica che siamo in presenza di un salto qualitativo. Cerchiamo allora di capire che tipo di salto vediamo del Reticolo.

La tesi che sostengo è che con questa opera in modo intuitivo Duchamp focalizza ulteriormente un nuovo concetto, che oggi chiamiamo ricorsione, e che in forma latente egli stava elaborando da qualche anno, come vedremo.

Di fatto nel Reticolo Duchamp utilizza ricorsivamente i Rammendi: abbiamo i tre Rammendi ripetuti tre volte, organizzati in terne e con una gerarchizzazione espressa da un grafo ad albero piuttosto astratto, che sembra sottolineare una diramazione.

La stessa diramazione è la cifra formale unificante del dipinto Giovane e fanciulla in primavera, sebbene qui la diramazione abbia lo specifico significato di sdoppiamento: infatti tutta la composizione è basata su un motivo a forma di Y. In accordo con La sposa messa a nudo in Marcel Duchamp, anche, dobbiamo far risalire questa cifra al simbolismo alchemico, dove Y sta per androgino (Schwarz, 111). Sia il Giovane che la Fanciulla levano le braccia aperte in una Y; i loro stessi corpi hanno una innaturale disposizione obliqua, che se osservata capovolta mostra nuovamente le diramazioni di una Y. Alla base della composizione abbiamo due archi diramanti, mentre alla sommità troviamo le diramazioni di un albero. Al centro della composizione c’è una forma circolare all’interno della quale vediamo una piccola figura umana; da questa forma circolare parte l’albero con le sue diramazioni; quindi se guardiamo alle due figure del Giovani e della Fanciulla come al prolungamento di tali diramazioni, esse costituiscono le diramazioni della piccola figura umana al centro della composizione. (Secondo Schwarz gli archi diramanti sono glutei, la figura circolare rappresenta Mercurio nell’ampolla, e l’albero con le sue ramificazioni rappresenta un fallo; infine, il percorso che ho descritto dovrebbe essere letto all’inverso, come il desiderio dei giovani di ricongiungersi in una primordiale unità androgina).

Qualunque interpretazione si dia del dipinto, esso presenta un dato oggettivo: quello di una cascata di sdoppiamenti, a cui guardo come un antecedente formale del motivo della ricorsione. Inoltre si noti che le forme sferiche suggerite dagli archi alla base della composizione sono ripetute, sia dall’ampolla, sia dai numerosi cespugli fioriti dello sfondo; e, cosa più interessante, all’interno dei cespugli sferici osserviamo numerose infiorescenze sferiche (come nell’ortensia). Così abbiamo un nuovo suggerimento di ricorsione: fiori sferici, all’interno di infiorescenze sferiche, all’interno di cespugli sferici, assieme ad altre forme sferiche. Per di più qui abbiamo una prima evidenza di quelle ripetizioni su scala ridotta (cespuglio, infiorescenza, fiore) che discuteremo più avanti.

Il motivo sferico è a sua volta connesso con un ulteriore importante motivo: quello della circolarità. Seguiamo ancora una volta nel dipinto la cascata di sdoppiamenti: i due archi in basso (come getti di una fontana) sostengono il cerchio contenente la piccola figura umana, a partire dal quale cresce l’albero diramante; questa diramazione ricade verso il basso attraverso la diramazione delle due figure dei giovani, che a loro volta poggiano i piedi proprio sui due archi alla base della composizione; in altre parole possiamo vedere in questo dipinto una sorta di moto convettivo, che ritorna circolarmente al punto di partenza.

Dunque, eseguendo il Reticolo di Rammendi sulla copia (incompiuta) di Giovane e fanciulla in primavera, Duchamp puntualizza gli antecedenti formali dell’opera. Possiamo sottolineare la stretta continuità fra le due opere osservando che l’unico dettaglio ben definito della copia è il busto della fanciulla con le sue braccia aperte: questa ramificazione umana è innestata con perfetta continuità sulle diramazioni del reticolo. Questo innesto (ricorsivo) di una opera su un’altra opera costituirà anche negli anni a venire uno degli elementi distintivi del modo di operare di Duchamp.


click to enlarge
The Bride Stripped
Bare by Her Bachelors
Figure 10
Marcel Duchamp, The Bride Stripped
Bare by Her Bachelors, Even
[a.k.a. The
Large Glass
], 1915-23

Aprendo il paragrafo abbiamo detto che in Duchamp le rotazioni di 90° sono speciali segnali, per mezzo dei quali viene allertata la nostra attenzione. Vediamo quali significati può avere in questo caso. L’inarcamento del busto e la posizione delle braccia della fanciulla denotano una postura eretta che tuttavia è chiaramente contraddetta dall’orientamento del quadro; come a dire: non interessa l’elemento figurativo della ragazza, ma il motivo formale della diramazione. Dunque, nel passaggio dai Giovani al Reticolo Duchamp ci chiede di focalizzare l’attenzione sull’aspetto concettuale (della ricorsione), mentre l’elemento narrativo (il mondo psichico dei due giovani e le vicende connesse) è apertamente confinato sullo sfondo (ma chiaramente non rimosso): questo passaggio all’astrazione è un primo salto di qualità.

Il secondo salto qualitativo si ha nel passaggio da una iterazione su base 2 (sdoppiamenti) ad una ricorsione su base 3 (tre volte tre Rammendi). Abbiamo già ricordato che per Duchamp 3 spesso significa molteplice o infinito.

Non riesco a vincere la tentazione di proporre qualche una congettura interpretativa: stiamo forse osservando la Sposa supina che leva le braccia nel delirio sei sensi, soggiacendo all’abbraccio tentacolare dello Scapolo? O forse il Reticolo non rappresenta dei tentacoli ma delle fiamme? Della passione o della punizione? Siamo forse testimoni della progressiva messa a fuoco da parte di Duchamp di quell’innesto uomo-macchina che ci verrà compiutamente rappresentato nel Grande Vetro? (Fig. 10)


click to enlarge
Nine Malic Moulds
Figure 11
Marcel Duchamp,Nine Malic Moulds, 1914-15

Comunque sia, la prossima stazione dell’odissea dei Rammendi è segnata da una nuova rotazione a 90°, per mezzo della quale il Reticolo di Rammendi viene prospetticamente proiettato su un piano orizzontale e diviene il sistema dei Capillari nell’Apparato Scapolo del Grande Vetro. Il salto di qualità connesso a questa nuova rotazione non ha bisogno di essere sottolineato. Esso comporta (fra altre importanti considerazioni) l’esportazione del principio del 3 (e quindi anche del 9) alGrande Vetro, a cominciare dagli Stampi Maschi (Fig. 11), che devono essere uno per Capillare, quindi appunto 9, mentre sappiamo dalla lettura delle note della Scatola Verdeche nel progetto iniziale erano solo 8.

1c. Tu m’

Nel 1918 Duchamp realizza il suo ultimo dipinto Tu m’, in cui riprende e elabora ulteriormente le tematiche che nello stesso periodo sviluppa nel Grande Vetro. All’interno del dipinto (di cui Schwarz, 1974, ha fornito una esauriente e convincente interpretazione) ricompaiono i Rammendi in una strana composizione che voglio analizzare in questo paragrafo.

Sulla sinistra del dipinto e in basso abbiamo una rappresentazione delle sagome dei Rammendi; qui sembra che Duchamp voglia giocare a carte scoperte: le sagome sono tutte e tre accuratamente allineate, in modo da evidenziarne le uguali lunghezze. I Rammendi sono direttamente rappresentati altrove nel dipinto, come vedremo oltre. Tuttavia Duchamp usa solo due delle tre sagome, la prima e l’ultima; quella centrale, qui non utilizzata, è la stessa che ci aveva ingannato nei Tre Rammendi Tipo (forse un’espiazione?)
Una mano col dito puntato, dipinta approssimativamente al centro della composizione, indica chiaramente la parte destra, dove, a colpo d’occhio, riconosciamo chiaramente i Rammendi; essi sono disposti nuovamente a coppie, e formano quattro coppie: il Rammendo rosso (corrispondente alla sagoma più in basso) e il Rammendo nero (sagoma più in alto). Nelle due coppie più in alto (una coppia di coppie) i Rammendi hanno lo stesso orientamento, mentre nelle coppie più in basso (altra coppia di coppie) i Rammendi sono disposti con orientamenti differenti. Così, abbiamo una coppia di coppie di coppie: un altro suggerimento di ricorsività, sebbene nuovamente a base 2.

Ricordiamo che abbiamo già osservato la stessa oscillazione fra 2 e 3 come base numerica della ricorsione nelle note della Scatola Verde, dove Duchamp prevedeva solo 8 (=23) Stampi Maschi ( da cui dovevano partire 3 capillari per ogni Stampo) mentre la scelta definitiva sarà 9 (=32, uno per ogni Capillare). Ma questa scelta non è definitiva, come testimonia il ritorno al 2 in Tu m’.

Torniamo alla descrizione del dipinto. I Rammendi paiono fluttuare liberamente nella superficie del dipinto. Da essi si dipartono perpendicolarmente dei raggi colorati da cui irradiano delle circonferenze (composti alla Kandinsky, suggerisce Schwarz). I raggi ci danno prospetticamente la dimensione della profondità, e sembrano alludere vagamente a evolute e evolventi di una curva, che Duchamp può aver visto sui testi di geometria. O, seguendo Henderson i raggi con le loro irradiazioni potrebbero essere una allusione alla presenza di Elettricità. In King and the Queen surrounded by Swift Nudes (1912) and the Invisible World of Electron dice che:

“simili immagini circolari o spiraliformi continuerebbero a servire a Duchamp in numerose opere susseguenti come indicatrici della presenza di elettricità o magnetismo.”

Considerando la profondità suggerita dai raggi colorati, la nostra attenzione è attratta da uno strano quadrilatero sghembo color latte, appena percepibile rispetto ad uno sfondo quasi del medesimo colore. Notiamo così che le quattro coppie di Rammendi si dipartono esattamente dai quattro vertici del quadrilatero, perpendicolarmente ad esso, venendo così a formare uno strano prisma in prospettiva. Il fatto che rammendi e quadrilatero debbano essere considerati come un tutto unico è prospetticamente sottolineato dal comune punto di fuga, posto sul margine inferiore del dipinto alla destra della mano indicante. Dunque, Duchamp attira la nostra attenzione sullo strano prisma (vedi Fig. 13).

Prism
Figure 13
A prism in perspective
with shared vanishing point,
Tu m’ (1918), detail

C’è una interessante ambiguità (probabilmente voluta) nella scelta del sistema di rappresentazione di questo strano prisma. Ne abbiamo già indicato l’impianto prospettico col suo punto di fuga. Ora, secondo le regole della prospettiva, i rammendi più lontani dovrebbero essere prospetticamente scorciati, ma l’assioma dei Rammendi tipo impone di conservarne rigidamente le lunghezze. Di conseguenza, Duchamp non disegna (non può farlo) la seconda faccia del prisma (parallela alla prima color latte) perché ciò determinerebbe un secondo punto di fuga, come mostrato in Fig. 14. Ciò comporta una visione assonometrica e non prospettica.

Second vanishing point of the
prism
Figure 14
Second vanishing point of the
prism, Tu m’ (1918), detail

Dunque il Prisma di Tu m’è rappresentato contemporaneamente sia attraverso un sistema prospettico che assonometrico, e delimita quindi uno spazio ambiguo, che per di più sembra chiuso ma in realtà è aperto. D’altra parte, essendo i Rammendi delle generalizzazioni di segmenti o di rette, c’era daaspettarsi che lo spazio delimitato dal prisma avesse qualche proprietà generalizzata rispetto ad uno spazio ordinario. Ma devo alla acuta capacità di osservazione di Gi Lonardini, mia moglie, la scoperta della principale e straordinaria proprietà di questa regione dello spazio. Per comprenderla dobbiamo volgere l’attenzione alle ombre dei ready-made dipinte nella composizione.

A partire dalla sinistra del dipinto abbiamo l’ombra della Ruota di bicicletta del 1913 (Fig. 15)(che starebbe per Duchamp, nell’interpretazione di Schwarz), poi osserviamo l’ombra delCavatappi del 1918 (Fig. 16) (secondo Schwarz sarebbe il fallo dello Scapolo-Duchamp, che desidererebbe consumare l’incesto violando l’intimità della sposa, e questo sarebbe il significato del trompe l’oiel dello strappo al centro della composizione) e infine sulla destra l’ombra dellaCappelliera del 1917 (Fig. 17) (essendo appesa al soffitto simbolizzerebbe l’impiccagione quale punizione per l’incesto, ancora una volta secondo Schwarz).

click images to enlarge

  • The shadow of Bicycle Wheel
  • The shadow of Corkscrew
  • The shadow of Hat Rack
  • Figure 15
  • Figure 16
  • Figure 17
  • The shadow of Bicycle Wheel
    (1913) in Tu m’ (1918), detail
  • The shadow of Corkscrew
    (1918) in Tu m’ (1918),detail
  • The shadow of Hat Rack
    (1917) in Tu m’ (1918), detail

Per la verità nel quadro è presente (quasi) sempre una quarta ombra, quella vera (cioè non dipinta) proiettata da un vero scovolino per bottiglie piantato nel centro dello strappo, perpendicolarmente alla tela; e con questa quarta, anche le 3 ombre sarebbero ricondotte ricorsivamente a 4 cioè ad una potenza di 2.

Ho provato un certo imbarazzo nel constatare che l’ombra della Cappelliera sembra eseguita maldestramente rispetto alle altre ombre, la cui esecuzione invece è impeccabile. Poi ho notato che mentre nelle fotografie del ready-made la cappelliera ha sei steli, nell’ombra proiettata sembra di scorgerne (ma in modo incerto) più di sei: uno più marcato che mostra la sua tipica arricciatura, ed altri sfumati e solo leggermente accennati… L’interpretazione di Gi è che stiamo osservando l’ombra dell’ombra. Questa è la straordinaria proprietà (ricorsiva) dello spazio generalizzato racchiuso dal prisma.


click to enlarge
Pencil-ink miniature of
Nude Descending a Staircase
Figure 18
Marcel Duchamp,Pencil-ink miniature of
Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2,
1918
Una vicenda della biografia di Duchamp pare in relazione con quanto osservato, e sembra indicare una persistente presenza delle tematiche nel pensiero di Duchamp nel periodo in cui elaborò Tu m’. Ho appreso infatti dalla lettura delle Effemeridi di Gough-Cooper & Caumont (1993) che il 23 luglio del 1918 (l’anno di Tu m’) Duchamp regalò all’amica Carrie Stettheimer per la sua casa delle bambole una miniatura in inchiostro e matita di 9.5×5.5 mm del proprio Nudo che discende le scale n.2 del 1912 (Fig. 18), che venne collocato nella sala da ballo miniaturizzata. Così, possiamo osservare la stessa idea di ripetizione in scatola che abbiamo incontrato in Tu m’, ma qui abbiamo inoltre l’importante specificazione della scala ridotta.


click to enlarge
The Delights of Kermoune
Figure 19
Marcel Duchamp,The Delights of Kermoune, 1958
Possiamo riconoscere tracce dell’idea della ripetizione in scatola e su scala ridotta anche in altre opere. Ricordiamo Le delizie di Kermoune, del 1958 (Fig. 19): Duchamp creò un grafo ad albero che ricorda il Reticolo di Rammendi, composto di aghi di pino fissati ad un foglio con la stessa tecnica a imbastitura usata per i Rammendi; era un regalo di ringraziamento per l’ospitalità ricevuta da Claude e Bertrande Blancpain a Kermoune. Apprendo dalla lettura delle Effemeridi (alla data 1-8-58) che Duchamp pose l’opera in una scatola grigia nascosta nell’armadio degli ospiti.

Nell’idea di ripetizione in scatola e su scala ridotta sembra di poter leggere una sorta di presagio dell’idea di frattale. In una nota della Scatola Verdeleggiamo:

Fare un armadio a specchi

Fare questo armadio a specchi per stagnola.

Così, se l’armadio dei Blancpain fosse stato un simile armadio (con specchi interni), allora la scatola grigia sarebbe stata ripetuta infinite volte, proprio come in un frattale.


click to enlarge
Boîte-Series F
Figure 20
Marcel Duchamp,
Boîte-Series F, 1966


click to enlarge
Reproduction of 
Why Not Sneeze Rrose Sélavy
Reproduction of 
Why Not Sneeze Rrose Sélavy
Figure 21
Marcel Duchamp,
Reproduction of
Why Not Sneeze Rrose Sélavy
(1920)
for the Boîte, 1940
Il tema della ripetizione in scala ridotta è anche sviluppato a fondo nella Boite-en-valise del 1941 (Fig. 20). Qui notiamo un’altra suggestiva ripresa del prisma dalle strane proprietà diTu m’: guardiamo il modello del ready-made Perché non starnutire Rose Sélavy? (del 1919) contenuto nella Boite-en-valise (Fig. 21). L’articoloMarcel Duchamp: A Readymade Case for Collecting Objects of Our Cultural Heritage Along with Works of Art sottolinea una importante proprietà dell’opera: il punto di partenza è una foto (2D) del celebre ready-made; la piccola gabbietta è ritagliata lungo i lati destro, alto e sinistro; questa sagoma è poi ripiegata su uno sghembo prisma solido (3D) che ha la sezione simile a quella del prisma di Tu m’. Dunque abbiamo superficie 2D che simula un oggetto 3D (per mezzo della piega lungo il lato frontale superiore della gabbietta, così da sovrapporsi al corrispondente lato del prisma). Così, la dimensionalità di questo oggetto è un numero fra gli interi 2 e 3.


click to enlarge
ina’s Poems à 2 Dimensions ½
Figure 22
Marcel Duchamp,
Mina’s Poems à 2 Dimensions ½
,1959
 Katherine Dreier’s
library room
Figure 23
Photograph of Katherine Dreier’s
library room before the
installation of Tu m’, 1918

Si tratta di una sorprendente coincidenza: l’idea di ripetizione (dell’ombra, in Tu m’, dell’oggetto in scala ridotta, nella Boite-en-valise) è esplicitamente associata ad una dimensionalità non intera, cioè ad una dimensionalità frattale: un’altra suggestiva proprietà dello strano prisma. Altrove troviamo un esplicito riferimento ad una dimensione non intera da parte di Duchamp, nei versi composti per Mina Loy; il titolo è Mina’s poems à 2 dimensions ½ (Effemeridi, 14 aprile 1959) (Fig. 22).

Un chiarimento è ora necessario per evitare possibili fraintendimenti. Non desidero affermare né che le opere di Duchamp esaminate (e altre che considereremo nel seguito)siano frattali (i frattali sono oggetti geometrici ben definiti, con diverse ben definite proprietà che non possiamo notare in Duchamp: questo è assolutamente ovvio), né che Duchamp abbia chiaramente intuito un tale concetto. Dobbiamo solo ammettere che l’idea di ripetizione ricorsiva in scala ridotta è oggettivamente collegata a quella di frattale, così che, in presenza dell’idea di ricorsione (anche se solo intuita) l’idea di frattale deve assumere una qualche evidenza, almeno in una forma embrionale. Io penso (ed ho iniziato a mostrare altrove, Giunti, 2001b) che nella misura in cui l’intuizione della ricorsione da parte degli artisti diviene più definita e precisa, allora anche la rappresentazione di frattali risulta essere consapevole, più chiara e più pertinente (come ad esempio nei casi di Klee ed Escher). Tuttavia, dobbiamo riconoscere che l’intuizione di una dimensionalità non intera, specialmente se relazionata ad una ripetizione su scala inferiore, è una intuizione straordinaria, che non possiamo notare (per quanto ne so) in nessun altro artista dello stesso periodo. Si ricordi inoltre che il primo libro di Mandelbrot sui frattali, dove egli li definisce in termini di dimensionalità non intera, fu pubblicato nel 1975. Infine torniamo a Tu m’ per un’ultima considerazione. Una fotografia che ho visto nelle Effemeridi (9 gennaio 1918) mostra la libreria di Miss Dreier prima dell’installazione di Tu m’ (Fig. 23). In primo piano vediamo chiaramente una gabbia per uccelli. Forse lo strano prisma era già in partenza concepito come una voliera.

1d. Due brevi divagazioni circolari


click to enlarge
Sad Young
Man on a Train
Figure 24
Marcel Duchamp,Sad Young
Man on a Train
, 1911
Marcel Duchamp, Family
Portrait
Figure 25
Marcel Duchamp, Family
Portrait (1899),
1964
Sebbene il tema della ricorsione sia frequentemente collegato al motivo del Reticolo (vedremo nel seguito altri esempi riferibili all’odissea dei Rammendi), riconosciamo la sua eco in altre opere nel corso dell’intera carriera artistica di Duchamp. Qui voglio discutere altre due opere, entrambe riferibili alla sua biografia; queste opere che si collocano emblematicamente agli opposti estremi della sua vita artistica:Giovane triste in treno del 1911 (Fig. 24) e Ritratto di famiglia del 1964(Fig. 25). Giovane triste in trenoè un autoritratto (in cui sono evidenziati due oggetti di affezione: il bastone da passeggio e la pipa). Leggiamone la descrizione di Duchamp:

“Prima di tutto c’è l’idea del movimento del treno, e quindi quella del giovane triste che si muove nel corridoio; per cui si hanno due movimenti paralleli corrispondenti.”

L’idea di un moto nel moto è certamente ricorsiva, ed è sottolineata dall’allitterazione presente nella titolazione originale: Jeune homme triste dans un train. Questa allitterazione (triste, train) è stata analizzata in un importante articolo da Gould (2000) che richiamerò estensivamente nella prossima sezione di questo articolo. Egli fra l’altro si interroga sul perché il giovane uomo dovrebbe essere triste? Egli ipotizza diverse risposte. Qui richiamerò due di esse.

Il primo motivo di tristezza è che il giovane sente col proprio moto di aggiunge solo poca cosa al moto generale del treno. Questa congettura di Gould conduce a mia volta ad una ulteriore congettura. Se guardiamo al moto nel moto come ad una precoce intuizione dell’idea di frattale, allora la tristezza del giovane sarebbe in relazione con l’intuizione di una importante caratteristica dei frattali: quella dello scaling dimensionale. Così, la tristezza del Giovane è simile a quella di Achille, che nel paradosso di Zenone, non può raggiungere la tartaruga.

Il secondo motivo di tristezza è che nel suo moto il giovane è doppiamente vincolato (dai binari e dal corridoio della carrozza) ad un percorso lineare, che Duchamp sente come fortemente limitativo: così sembra esservi la percezione della limitatezza della linearità; di fatto lo stesso anno, in Giovane e fanciulla in primavera, Duchamp introduceva l’importante elemento della circolarità nella iterazione, attraverso le turbolenze convettive che già abbiamo indicato in un paragrafo precedente.


click to enlarge
Duchamp’s family photo
Figure 26
Duchamp’s family photo,1899
Slave
Market with Invisible Apparition
of Voltaire’s Bust
Figure 27
Salvador Dalì, Slave
Market with Invisible Apparition
of Voltaire’s Bust
, 1940
Veniamo al Ritratto di famiglia, che lo ritrae fanciullo assieme ai genitori ed alle sorelline. Si tratta di una vecchia fotografia di famiglia (1899) (Fig. 26) , che Duchamp ritaglia secondo uno strano contorno curvilineo. Possiamo riconoscere una tecnica alla Arcimboldo, ampiamente sperimentata anche da Salvador Dalì (ad esempio nel celebre Mercato di schiavi con apparizione invisibile del busto di Voltaire(Fig. 27), o anche meglio nel Volto della guerra, opere entrambe del 1940): si tratta infatti di un busto umano composto da tanti busti umani: ricorsione ovunque (e qualcosa che ancora ricorda i frattali). Le teste della madre e della piccola Magdeleine formano gli occhi, mentre la testa del giovane Marcel è la bocca; infine Suzanne, Yvonne ed il padre Eugene formano le braccia ed il torace. Per adesso sorvoliamo sul significato (non solo psicologico) dell’esclusione dei fratelli maschi da questa composizione (ne riparleremo in un paragrafo successivo, dopo aver acquisito nuovi elementi). Ora limitiamoci alle conseguenze sul piano formale di questa esclusione: notiamo che la sagoma formata dall’esclusione di un fratello forma in modo funzionale l’incavo dell’ascella del grande busto di busti, mentre la permanenza del secondo fratello e delle altre persone presenti nella foto originale avrebbero reso irriconoscibile o almeno deformato la sagoma del grande busto.

Ora, voglio osservare che Duchamp ha ottenuto questa opera a partire dalla fotografia di una famiglia (la propria); in questo modo la ricorsione, che abbiamo notato sul piano formale, è ricollegata, sul piano dei contenuti, alla ricorsione ciclica del perenne ricambio generazionale, in cui i figli diventano i nuovi genitori, che avranno nuovi figli che diventeranno nuovi genitori… Dunque abbiamo l’associazione di ciclicità e ricorsione. Questa associazione è rinforzata dal fatto che la sagoma che si viene a creare attraverso il ritaglio operato non ha più nulla delle rigidità rettilinee a senso unico del primo autoritratto, ma ha piuttosto, come giustamente nota Clair (2000) le curve e le rotondità di un famoso readymade: quelle della Fontana del 1917. Ritorneremo più avanti su questa importante osservazione.

Infine, se guardiamo al Ritratto di famiglia come alla filogenesi di Duchamp, allora l’autoritratto di Giovane triste in treno potrebbe illustrare la sua ontogenesi (dopo tutto questo autoritratto non è statico ma una rappresentazione piuttosto dinamica della sua evoluzione temporale). Se così fosse, dovremmo riconoscere l’implicita affermazione che entrambi i processi (filogenesi e ontogenesi) condividono le medesime modalità ricorsive.

2. La lingua di Rrose
2a. La nota sulla Lingua nella Scatola Verde

 

Nelle note della Scatola Verde leggiamo una complessa nota intitolata Lingua. Eccola:

Ricercare delle “Parole prime” (“divisibili” solo per se stesse e per l’unità).
Prendere un dizionario Larousse e copiare tutte le parole dette “astratte”, che non abbiano cioè riferimenti concreti.
Comporre un segno schematico che designi ognuna di queste parole (questo segno può essere composto con gli arresti-campione).
Questi segni devono essere considerati le lettere del nuovo alfabeto.
Un raggruppamento di parecchi segni determinerà
(Utilizzare i colori – per differenziare ciò che corrisponderebbe in questa (letteratura) a sostantivo, verbo, avverbio, declinazioni, coniugazioni ecc.).
Necessità della continuità ideale cioè: ogni raggruppamento sarà collegato agli altri, da un significato rigoroso (specie di grammatica che non designa più una costruzione pedagogica della frase, ma, tralasciando le differenze delle lingue e i “giri” di frase di ogni lingua, pesi e misure delle astrazioni di sostantivi, di negazioni, dei rapporti da soggetto a verbo ecc. per mezzo dei segni-campione, (rappresentando le nuove relazioni: coniugazioni, declinazioni, plurale e singolare, aggettivazione, inesprimibili nelle forme alfabetiche concrete delle lingue viventi presenti e a venire).
Questo alfabeto non conviene che alla scrittura di questo quadro molto probabilmente.

In questa nota Duchamp ipotizza la creazione di una lingua artificiale che deve essere una generalizzazione delle lingue naturali. La logica sottesa alla costruzione della nuova lingua ha due aspetti essenziali intimamente collegati: la ricorsività e l’astrattezza.

Riguardo al primo aspetto, quello della ricorsività, notiamo che gli elementi atomici della nuova lingua artificiale, cioè i suoi fonemi, sono certe parole, prese dal dizionario di un linguaggio naturale, che Duchamp indica col termine di parole prime (spiegherò la mia ipotesi circa il significato di parole prime nel prossimo paragrafo). Quindi i fonemi della nuova lingua artificiale sono parole (combinazioni di fonemi) di una lingua naturale: fonemi di fonemi, parole di parole. A ognuno dei fonemi del linguaggio artificiale corrisponde un segno grafico, cioè un grafema, composto attraverso segni-campione, che penso siano (almeno in relazione con) i Rammendi (quindi un grafema composto da grafemi). Dunque in sintesi Duchamp ipotizza una lingua artificiale che sia la generalizzazione ricorsiva di una lingua naturale.

Il secondo aspetto, quello dell’astrazione, è riferibile alla focalizzazione sulla sintassi del nuovo linguaggio; infatti Duchamp parla di continuità ideale, significato rigoroso, pesi e misure delle astrazioni di sostantivi, nuove relazioni… mentre la semantica è chiaramente svalutata quando parla dell’assenza di una costruzione pedagogica della frase, dei giri di frase propri ad ogni lingua

Considerando l’applicazione di un metodo ricorsivo e l’aspirazione all’astrazione generalizzante, è possibile vedere una sorta di intuizione di due aspetti che hanno effettivamente caratterizzato la ricerca linguistica nella seconda metà del 900.

Cominciamo dal primo: sappiamo che nelle cosiddette grammatiche generative la frase è costruita attraverso regole grammaticali di tipo ricorsivo, dove ogni simbolo può essereriscritto (cioè sostituito) con altri simboli, che a loro volta possono ricorsivamente contenere lo stesso simbolo riscritto (vedi per maggiori informazioni Ghezzi e Mandrioli, 1989 o il classico Grishman, 1986).

La produzione di una sentenza per mezzo di una tale grammatica è spesso descritta attraverso speciali grafi ad albero in cui ogni riscrittura corrisponde ad una nuova ramificazione. Il semplice esempio che segue è tratto dal classico Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. An introduction. Il simbolo iniziale è S (Sentenza); gli altri simboli sono: NS (Sintagma Nominale), VS (Sintagma Verbale), D (Determinante), N (Nome), V (Verbo); le regole grammaticali sono:

Questa grammatica produce semplici sentenze nella forma Soggetto-Predicato-Complemento, come in: “The child drew an elephant” (Cook). Il corrispondente diagramma ad albero è illustrato in


Fig. 28

Fig. 28

E’ interessante notare che l’unico grafema effettivamente composto da Duchamp con i Rammendi è un grafo ad albero: quello del Reticolo di Rammendi. Fornirò un secondo esempio di simili grammatiche nel prossimo paragrafo, direttamente riferito a Duchamp.

Per quanto riguarda il secondo aspetto, è noto che il progetto di una grammatica universale non è altro che lo sforzo di individuare per generalizzazioni progressive quelle strutture grammaticali astratte comuni a tutti i linguaggi naturali. Maturana (1978) precisa in modo esplicito l’importanza della ricorsività quale elemento universale fondante di ogni linguaggio:

Per contro, la grammatica universale di cui parlano i linguisti come insieme di regole soggiacenti comuni a tutti i linguaggi naturali umani può riferirsi solo all’universalità del processo ricorsivo di accoppiamento strutturale che ha luogo fra gli umani nell’applicazione ricorsiva delle componenti di un dominio consensuale senza dominio consensual (52)

Tornando a Duchamp, la nota sul linguaggio si conclude con una considerazione importante. A cosa può servire questo nuovo linguaggio? Duchamp risponde esplicitamente: è un linguaggio utile a descrivere questo quadro, cioè il Grande Vetro (ricordiamo che le note della Scatola Verde si riferiscono appunto alla progettazione e alla descrizione del Grande Vetro). Perché? Perché questo linguaggio astratto ne condivide la natura di progressiva generalizzazione ricorsiva. Se tuttavia questo linguaggio è quello utile alla descrizione delGrande Vetro, allora serve anche per scrivere le note stesse della Scatola Verde (che sono parte integrante del Grande Vetro), all’interno delle quali troviamo la stessa nota che descrive proprio il nuovo linguaggio (abbiamo qui un primo esempio di quei cicli autoreferenziali caratteristici di Duchamp di cui parleremo oltre). Infatti notiamo che nelle note della Scatola verde Duchamp usa una sintassi effettivamente strana ed elastica, che non si accorda con le usuali regole sintattiche delle lingue naturali: troviamo verbi transitivi senza complemento, periodi ipotetici in cui sono omesse le conclusi, incisi non risolti, e così via. Così il linguaggio della Scatola Verde è forse una prima approssimazione del nuovo linguaggio, “rappresentando le nuove relazioni: coniugazioni, declinazioni, plurale e singolare, aggettivazione, inesprimibili nelle forme alfabetiche concrete delle lingue viventi presenti e a venire”.

2b. Parole prime e autoproduzione

Ora, cerchiamo di chiarire cosa dobbiamo intendere per parole prime. Seguendo un suggerimento di Calvesi io penso che siano emissioni vocali primarie, come la parola Dada, o come le prime articolazioni sillabiche di un bambino, come mama o papa, quando esse ancora non hanno una precisa referenza semantica (parole astratte, dice Duchamp), cioè quando sono ancora solo pure combinazioni di fonemi elementari (135). Così, io penso cheparole prime e parole astratte debbano intendersi come sinonimi.

Se le cose stanno così, possiamo intravedere qualche primo esempio di questa lingua nuova: si tratta dei famosi non-senso di Duchamp giocati sulle allitterazioni a cascata. Il più famoso:

Esquivons les ecchymoses des Esquimaux aux mots exquis

Gould ha analizzato questo gioco di parole nel saggio citato sopra (che per me è stato fonte di ispirazione e divertimento). Si tratta di continue ricombinazioni di alcuni gruppi sillabici principali, che in questo contesto possiamo considerare alla stregua di fonemi. Il fatto che dalla combinazione delle sillabe in parole nasca un non senso, corrisponde esattamente alla programmatica svalutazione dell’aspetto semantico rispetto a quello sintattico. Qui la combinazione sillabica vale esclusivamente per la sua grammatica combinatoria, ma non ha alcuna valenza espressiva, non c’è alcuna costruzione pedagogica della frase, né alcun giro di frase (leggi, come credo: forma idiomatica). Le regole grammaticali per la ricombinazione sillabica sono compendiate nella seguente semplice grammatica (ricorsiva), che può generare il gioco di parole di Duchamp (e infiniti altri non-sense, con la stessa struttura, in un puro grammelot francese):

Il simbolo iniziale è P.
Gli altri simboli seguenti (in lettere maiuscole) sono i cosiddetti simboli non terminali (cioè i simboli che devono essere riscritti): W (parola), C (Connettivo), D (Doppia sillaba), S (Sillaba semplice), E (sillaba che inizia in E), K (sillaba Key). Infine, i seguenti (in lettere minuscole) sono i simboli terminali (cioè i simboli che non possono essere riscritti): es, ek, ex, von, mos, mò, mot, key, keys; essi traslitteranola pronuncia delle corrispondenti sillabe francesi.

Il simbolo | sta per “oppure”.

P -> W C W

C -> C W C | le | de | o (si noti che questa regola è ricorsiva)

W -> D S | S D

D -> E K

E -> es | ek | ex

K -> key | keys

Fig. 29 mostra la derivazione del gioco di parole di Duchamp.


click to enlarge
Rotary Demisphere
Figure 30
Marcel Duchamp,
Rotary Demisphere
, 1925
Gould giustamente evidenzia che il gioco di parole è scritto sullaRotary Demisphere del 1925 (Fig. 30), un dispositivo ottico che quando ruota genera l’illusione di una spirale che si srotola senza fine verso l’esterno. Questa significativa associazione è molto importante perché mostra come per Duchamp in questo gioco di parole si ha una autoproduzione potenzialmente infinita. Usando la grammatica proposta sopra è facile verificarlo, se ci si contenta non solo di frasi non-sense, ma anche di parole non-sense (ricordiamo che questa grammatica genera sentenze in purogrammelot francese).

 

2c. Autoreferenzialità e autoproduzione di senso

I giochi di parole di Duchamp hanno spesso un’altra importante caratteristica: quella dell’autoreferenzialità.
Ecco un primo esempio:

Si la scie scie la scie

et si la scie qui scie la scie

est la scie qui scie la scie

il y a suissscide metallique.

[Se la sega sega la sega

e se la sega che sega la sega

è la sega che sega la sega

allora si ha suicidio metallico]

Ho appreso leggendo le Effemeridi (17 marzo 1960) che fu composto per un’opera d’arte di Jean Tinguely (un happening, diremmo), per la cui la scena era inizialmente progettato un esercito di seghe.

Il gioco di parole non è di quelli memorabili, ma è particolarmente utile per introdurre quello che ci interessa, perché l’immagine della sega che sega se stessa è chiaramente autoreferenziale. Inoltre è presente l’elemento della proliferazione attraverso la ripetizione sillabica (autocostruzione). Infine abbiamo almeno un divertente suiss-scide, con suono quasi identico a suicide, cioè un suicidio di seghe (scie – scide) svizzere (suiss), che Duchamp scrisse probabilmente pensando ad un esercito di seghe che si muovono con perfetto sincronismo (con precisione svizzera) fino ad un inconsapevole ed ottuso suicidio (autodistruzione).

Curiosamente, l’happening di Jean Tinguely ebbe inaspettatamente le stesse caratteristiche del gioco di parole: fu autodistruttivo (e questo era previsto) ma anche autocosrtruttivo (e questo fu inatteso). Un fantasioso macchinario, fatto di ogni sorta di materiale riciclato, doveva autodistruggersi con un incendio; ad un certo punto, temendo per un guasto imprevisto l’esplosione di un estintore, Tinguely implorava l’intervento del pompiere, il quale invece esitava; quando finalmente il pompiere iniziò le operazioni, rischiò il linciaggio da parte del pubblico che credeva il suo intervento fuori luogo nel contesto dell’happening. Così, nell’interazione fra l’opera e gli spettatori, finì per autogenerarsi un evento comico del tutto inatteso.

Torniamo ora, dopo questa digressione, al tema dell’autoreferenza nei giochi di parole di Duchamp. Egli persegue questo obiettivo con tecniche sottili ed efficaci. Come esempi considererò due giochi verbali riprendendo l’analisi che ne ha fatto Gould, e sviluppando alcune altre considerazioni.
Il primo, piuttosto semplice, è questo:

Cessez le chant

laissez ce chant

[Cessate il canto

lasciate questo canto]

dove, come ha osservato Gould, con uno scambio delle consonanti iniziali (C e L) fra le prime due parole di ogni riga (verbo e articolo) secondo lo schema

C L

L C

egli provoca un gradevole chiasmo a livello uditivo, e una inversione del senso della frase a livello semantico. Qui desidero sottolineare che ciascuna delle due righe di testo, presa a sé, non ha alcun particolare valore al di là del suo ovvio riferimento semantico; ma nuovo senso è creato dalla congiunzione delle due frasi, a causa dei loro riferimenti interni reciproci: l’effetto del chiasmo e l’effetto di inversione di significati. In altre parole, la congiunzione delle due frasi produce un valore aggiunto che va al di là della pura somma del valore semantico delle due frasi. Dunque nel gioco verbale il tutto è superiore alla somma delle parti, ed il valore aggiunto si genera attraverso dei rimandi interni, cioè questo gioco di parole è autoreferenziale.

Il secondo gioco di parole, più complesso ed affascinante, è bilingue (francese vs. latino):

éffacer FAC

assez AC

[cancella FAI

abbastanza E]

La parola éffacer suona come una contrazione di ef (F) ed éffacer (cancella), e quindi può significare qualcosa come: cancella F; ora, eseguendo l’operazione prescritta dalla prima parola alla parola stessa éffacer (quindi una operazione autoreferenziale) si ottiene acer il cui omofono è assez, cioè si ottiene la seconda parola francese. E qui il tutto si fermerebbe, perché assez significa abbastanza, come dire: è abbastanza, tutto è finito. Qui entra in gioco la parte latina.

Applicando la stessa cancellazione di una F alla prima parola latina, si passa da FAC (fai) ad AC (e). La scrittura è così completata. Notiamo poi che in ciascuna riga la parola latina ha valore semantico opposto a quello della corrispondente parola francese, così da creare un’alternanza di ordini e contrordini che è sottolineato dal passaggio di lingua. Qui viene la parte interessante. L’ultima parola AC (e) implicitamente suggerisce di aggiungere qualcosa; se questo qualcosa fosse proprio la F che prima abbiamo cancellato, ed eseguissimo il comando (come abbiamo fatto per passare dalla prima alla seconda riga), otterremmo:efassez FAC, omofono di effacer FAC; avremmo cioè un ciclico ritorno alla riga di partenza, in un moto periodico infinito.

In questo gioco di parole possiamo vedere, con maggiore evidenza che nel primo, una intrinseca autoreferenza: le 4 parole prese isolatamente hanno scarso significato (giusto i loro diretti riferimenti semantici); ma la trama di relazioni che si autostabilisce fra di esse crea e mette in moto un motore che produce nuovo senso. Più precisamente, la prima delle 4 parole contiene in sé il germe dell’intero meccanismo, e nelle relazioni interne con le altre parti del sistema si autogenera un moto circolare potenzialmente infinito.

Ancora una volta, e con ben maggiore evidenza, l’autoreferenzialità genera organizzazione e quindi nuovo senso.

E’ suggestivo pensare che un piccolo gioiello come l’ultimo gioco di parole può condensare in sé una quantità di caratteristiche non solo di molte altre opere di Duchamp, ma addirittura del complesso della sua opera.

In particolare, la tipica idea duchampiana di ricontestualizzare i propri precedenti lavori, come nel caso dei Rammendi, è intrinsecamente autoreferenziale, in quanto Duchamp si riferisce sempre ad un precedente Duchamp. Nel ciclico e ricorsivo riutilizzo senza fine di idee simili in contesti sempre nuovi, si generano quei salti qualitativi, quelle generalizzazioni, quei valori aggiunti, Bateson direbbe quelle tipizzazioni logiche di livello superiore, che fanno progredire il suo lavoro ed il suo pensiero. Ogni singolo elemento della sua inesauribile attività mentale contiene in nuce, i germi essenziali delle caratteristiche generali; ogni elemento della sua produzione contiene potenzialmente una quantità di informazione sufficiente a ripercorrere (se non proprio ricreare) la sua intera produzione, esattamente come negli organismi viventi, dove ogni cellula contiene l’informazione genetica potenzialmente capace di rigenerare l’intero organismo.

3. Il mondo della Vespa

Consideriamo un’altra importante nota dalla Scatola Verde.

Iscrizione dell’alto

Ottenuta con i pistoni di corrente d’aria. (Indicare la maniera di “preparare” questi pistoni). Poi “collocarli” per un certo periodo di tempo, (da 2 a 3 mesi) e permettere che lascino la loro impronta intanto che tre reti attraverso le quali passano gli ordini dell’impiccato femmina (ordini il cui alfabeto e i termini sono regolati dall’orientazione delle 3 reti) (una specie di tripla “griglia” attraverso la quale la via lattea sostiene e conduce i detti ordini).

Poi toglierli in modo che non resti altro che la loro impronta rigida cioè laforma che permette tutte le combinazioni di lettere mandate attraverso la suddetta forma tripla, ordini, autorizzazioni, ecc. che devono andare a raggiungere i tiri e lo spruzzo.

Questa nota contiene per me una quantità di suggestioni, che risuonano così profondamente col mio modo di vedere le cose, che mi è molto difficile tenere distinte le proiezioni della mia immaginazione da ciò che effettivamente la nota presenta. Comunque, considerando il peculiare linguaggio adottato da Duchamp nelle note della Scatola Verde, l’analisi è sempre esposta (credo deliberatamente, da parte di Duchamp) ad un ampio margine di arbitrio interpretativo.

Venendo allo specifico della nota, cominciamo ad osservare che attraverso le reti passano gli ordini della Sposa: nel sistema del Grande Vetro la Sposa è regina. Uno dei suoi apparati essenziali è chiamato da Duchamp la Vespa, e l’idea di una Vespa-regina mi fa pensare all’organizzazione sociale degli imenotteri (insetti come le api, le formiche o, appunto, le vespe). Al vertice della loro complessa organizzazione sistemica c’è la regina. Essa, oltre ad assolvere all’importante funzione riproduttiva, regola molte funzioni vitali della comunità emettendo varie sostanze chimiche (ad esempio, una nuova sciamatura delle api è indotta quando viene raggiunta una certa concentrazione di un particolare ormone prodotto dalla regina). Di fatto, dal punto di vista di un osservatore esterno al sistema, queste emissioni chimiche possono essere descritte come ordini. La Via Lattea rappresentata alla sommità delVetro ha in effetti le parvenze di una rappresentazione entomologica (come una grossa larva, o come l’addome molle e rigonfio di uova della regina). Ed una innegabile suggestione entomologica emana anche dalla descrizione dell’apparato Vespa, con le sue secrezioni, la materia filamentosa, il meccanismo di ventilazione (proprio come il un alveare). Insomma, la prima suggestione è quella di vedere rappresentata una società di insetti: alla sommità della rappresentazione giace la regina, alla base c’è la macchinosa e complessa laboriosità delle caste subalterne.

(Una piccola digressione. Queste considerazioni per così dire entomologiche consentono di fornire un significato aggiuntivo al gioco di parole di Duchamp: A Guest + A Host = A Ghost (Fig. 31), già ampiamente analizzato da Gould. Diverse specie di vespe depongono le loro uova nelle immediate vicinanze di un bruco, o addirittura al suo interno, precedentemente paralizzato con una puntura; alla schiusa, le larve potranno nutrirsi di carne fresca, avendo la precauzione di banchettare a partire dagli organi non vitali. Nello studio del parassitismo, l’organismo parassitato, qui il bruco, è detto Host; se poi indichiamo poi con Guest la larva parassita, la parola Ghost illustra perfettamente la fine del povero Host).

Ora, dobbiamo sottolineare un piccolo ma significativo dettaglio. Nel Grande Vetro la Vespa è solo uno degli apparati della Sposa, mentre io ne ho parlato come se fosse la Sposa stessa. Questa identificazione fra una parte (l’apparato della Sposa) e il tutto (la Sposa stessa) è autorizzata da Duchamp stesso, come vedremo meglio oltre, perché è la stessa relazione, apertamente dichiarata da Duchamp, fra la sposa (parte) e il Grande Vetro (tutto): così, l’identificazione tutto-parte (Vetro-Sposa) viene ripetuta (ancora una volta) su scala inferiore (Sposa-Vespa). Inoltre, l’identificazione Sposa-Vespa è coerente col ritratto psichico della sposa stessa fatto da Schwarz. Egli ricorda anche un incubo che ebbe Duchamp mentre terminava il dipinto della Sposa a Monaco: la Sposa divenne un gigantesco insetto che lo torturava atrocemente (147).


click to enlarge
>Marcel Duchamp, A Guest +
A Host = A Ghost
Figure 31
Marcel Duchamp, A Guest +
A Host = A Ghost
, 1953

La seconda suggestione rimanda alle schede perforate delle macchine industriali o di certi organetti musicali che circolavano per le vie delle città in quegli anni: scheda perforata significa ordine codificato; dunque, la regina emana i suoi ordini disponendo particolari combinazioni dei fori delle diverse reti-schede peforate.

Le 3 reti sono collocate per 2 o 3 mesi in loco, in modo che possano spontaneamente e plasticamente conformarsi al fluire degli ordini della sposa; si verrà in tal modo a strutturare automaticamente quel codice idoneo a veicolare gli ordini della Sposa; esso sarà basato sul sistema delle mutue posizioni delle tre reti; tale codice rimarrà poi stabilmente impresso nel sistema attraverso la loro impronta.

Duchamp prevede quindi una prolungata esposizione delle reti ad eventi stocastici, che finiscono per strutturare e modellare il loro stesso codice. Biologicamente parlando, tutto questo evoca l’idea di un processo di adattamento selettivo in atto. Esattamente come quello che ha condotto all’evoluzione di un efficiente sistema biochimico di autoregolazione di un formicaio, o di un alveare, o infine di un nido di vespe.

Un’ultima suggestione che questa nota esercita su di me, strettamente connessa alla precedente, è di tipo matematico, e riguarda il comportamento delle reti neurali. Gurney le definisce così:

Una rete neurale è un assemblaggio di semplici elementi di calcolo, unità o nodi, la cui funzionalità è liberamente ispirata da quella del neurone animale. L’abilità di calcolo della rete è immagazzinata nella forza, o peso, delle connessioni fra le unità, ottenuta con un processo di adattamento a, o di apprendimento da, un insieme di schemi di addestramento.”

In altre parole, le reti neurali sono formalismi matematici che simulano il connessionismo e l’attività neuronale. Sono costituite da variabili numeriche interconnesse in una struttura a rete, e sono ricorsivamente ricalcolate, in modo da ottimizzare, in un continuo processo per tentativi ed errori, le prestazioni della rete stessa, in base all’obiettivo per cui è stata progettata.

Quindi le reti neurali vengono così a modellarsi, in un processo talvolta molto simile a quello evolutivo, in base all’obiettivo di volta in volta prefissato come scopo. Così, le reti neurali manifestano lo stesso tipo di organizzazione evidenziato nel processo evolutivo. Questo è il modo in attraverso cui le reti neurali apprendono: si tratta di un processo di autorganizzazione interna attraverso cicli ricorsivi.

Innegabilmente, tutto ciò è molto simile a quanto immaginato da Duchamp per le tre reti della Via Lattea.

E’ ora necessario precisare che ai tempi di Duchamp non esisteva la biochimica (tantomeno quella applicata allo studio del funzionamento di un alveare); ed è pure scontato che non esistevano le reti neurali (e meno che mai le cosiddette reti multistrato, come dovremmo qualificare quelle di Duchamp); quindi non intendo ipotizzare che Duchamp potesse essere influenzato dalla conoscenza di simili nozioni, né tantomeno che egli intendesse col Grande Vetro creare una metafora di un sistema complesso (come una società di insetti o come una rete neurale). Né intendo infine sostenere che la sua intuizione abbia in qualche modo precorso nello specifico quei risultati scientifici futuri. Più semplicemente, la mia idea è che concetti come quelli di ricorsione, autoreferenzialità, feedback circolare (e così via) sono così strettamente connessi fra loro e al concetto di autorganizzazione che, in un modo o nell’altro, quest’ultimo aspetto doveva trovare il modo di esprimersi, anche se in una forma implicita, come quella evidenziata qui.


click to enlarge
uchamp’s 
Dust Breeding by Man Ray
Figure 32
Photograph of Duchamp’s
Dust Breeding
by Man Ray, 1920
Un ulteriore chiarimento è necessario. Anche nella realizzazione dei Setacci del Grande Vetro Duchamp progettò un altro sistema stocastico, e realmente lo pose in atto, esponendo il Vetro alla polvere per circa 4 mesi. La celebre foto di un dettaglio del Grande Vetro coperto di polvere, titolata Allevamento di polvere (Fig. 32), eseguita da Man Ray nel 1920, documenta il risultato. Tuttavia questo esempio (per quanto importante) non riguarda l’aspetto dell’autorganizzazione suggerito sopra: qui abbiamo una pura casualità che ciecamente produce un risultato, sicuramente interessante, ma senza una specifica organizzazione; là invece avevamo la stessa casualità che invece produceva organizzazione (la creazione del codice); in altre parole, e parlando in termini di entropia, qui abbiamo un’entropia che aumenta, là avevamo una riduzione.

Topologia di Marcel

4a. Ricetta per Bottiglie

Leggiamo in una nota della Scatola Verde:

Leggiamo in una nota della Scatola Verde:

E al contrario: L’asse verticale considerato isolatamente ruotante su se stesso, per esempio una generatrice ad angolo retto determinerà sempre un cerchio in tutti e due i casi: 1° girando nella direzione A; 2°, direzione B.

Dunque, se era ancora possibile, nel caso di asse verticale in riposo, considerare 2 direzioni contrarie per la generatrice G, la figura generata, (qualsiasi sia), non può più essere chiamata destra o sinistra dell’asse.

A mano a mano che c’è meno differenza da asse ad asse c o d, cioè a mano a mano che tutti gli assi spariscono in grigio di verticalità, il davanti e il dietro, il dritto ed il rovescio prendono un significato circolare: la destra e la sinistra che sono i 4 bracci del davanti e del dietro si riassorbono lungo le verticali.

L’interno e l’esterno(per esteso 4) possono ricevere una simile identificazione, ma l’asse non è più verticale e non ha più l’apparenza unidimensionale.

Sebbene la nota sia un po’ oscura, e come sempre la sua lettura sia ardua, è possibile ipotizzare un modello interpretativo coerente con le parti principali di questa nota, modello che trova per di più una coerenza anche con alcune fondamentali opere di Duchamp.

Cominciamo ad immaginare un semplice rettangolo. Se tracciamo un asse verticale che lo attraversi, rispetto tale asse ha senso distinguere una parte destra ed una parte sinistra della figura. Ora, se siamo in uno spazio 3D, e con un movimento circolare chiudiamo il rettangolo a formare un cilindro (Fig. 33A) non ha più senso parlare di destra o di sinistra rispetto l’asse precedentemente tracciato, perché qualunque punto del cilindro può essere raggiunto sia girando verso destra che verso sinistra.

 

Fig. 33A

Se vogliamo utilizzare il rettangolo per rappresentare il cilindro nel piano 2D, dobbiamo accordarci sulla semplice convenzione che i due lati verticali del rettangolo rappresentano la stessa linea del cilindro. Così, se noi camminassimo sul rettangolo come se fossimo sul cilindro, quando uscissimo da lato sinistro potremmo continuare rientrando da quello destro, e viceversa, come mostrano le Fig. 33B e 33C.

click images to enlarge

  • Fig. 33B
  • Fig. 33C

 

click to enlarge
Door
Figure 34
Marcel Duchamp,
Door: II, rue Larrey
, 1927
Duchamp applica questa idea nella suggestiva Porta: II, rue Larrey del 1927 (Fig. 34) che quando chiudeva l’ambiente di destra apriva quello di sinistra, e viceversa.

Dunque, con una semplice chiusura circolare passiamo dal rettangolo al cilindro, perdendo così la distinzione fra destra e sinistra. Ora, ripetendo la stessa operazione di chiusura circolare partendo dal cilindro, otteniamo una forma geometrica a ciambella che in topologia si chiama toro (Fig. 35A). Con questa operazione perdiamo anche la distinzione fra alto e basso.


Fig. 35A

Come prima, se usiamo il rettangolo per rappresentare il toro in uno spazio 2D, dobbiamo accordarci su una seconda semplice convenzione, analoga alla prima: i due lati orizzontali del rettangolo rappresentano una stessa linea circolare del toro, e se camminassimo sul rettangolo come se fossimo sul toro, quando uscissimo dal lato superiore potremmo continuare rientrando da quello inferiore, e viceversa, come mostrano le Fig. 35B e 35C.

click images to enlarge

  • Fig. 35B
  • Fig. 35C

Ed ora, l’ultimo passo. Riferiamoci ancora ad un rettangolo
nello spazio 2D, manteniamo le due regole per l’uscita e il rientro dai
lati orizzontali e verticali della figura, e introduciamo una piccola
ma importante alterazione della seconda: quando usciamo dal lato superiore
possiamo rientrare dal basso, ma scambiando destra e sinistra,
e viceversa,
(Fig. 36B e 36C).

click images to enlarge

  • Fig. 36B
  • Fig. 36C

E’ facile verificare che quando passiamo dal cilindro
al toro non abbiamo questo scambio fra destra e sinistra. Vediamo in

Fig. 35A i bordi del toro
prima della chiusura: percorriamo le due circonferenze con lo stesso orientamento
(orario o antiorario in entrambi i casi).


Fig. 35A

Dunque il toro non si accorda col nuovo scambio della seconda regola. Per ottenere l’effetto desiderato, occorre che il cilindro penetri se stesso (con una autointersezione) prima di chiudersi, come illustrato in Fig. 36A.


Fig. 36A


Click to see animations
The formation
of the Klein Bottle
Animation A1
The formation
of the Klein Bottle


The Klein Bottle
Animation A2
The Klein Bottle

La nuova strana figura è chiamata Bottiglia di Klein (dal matematico Klein). L’animazione A1 aiuta a visualizzare la formazione della bottiglia a partire da un semplice rettangolo per mezzo di due chiusure circolari simultanee. (En passant: dobbiamo ammettere che la superficie kleiniana sarebbe un ottimo posto su cui disegnare una sega suicida!)

Questo oggetto ha molte strane proprietà topologiche, fra cui citiamo la più importante per il presente contesto: mentre il toro ha due facce (interna ed esterna) la bottiglia di Klein ha solo una faccia, perché con questa figura noi perdiamo la distinzione fra interno ed esterno, come possiamo facilmente verificare con un piccolo sforzo di immaginazione, con una esplorazione mentale dell’oggetto.L’animazione A2 può servire allo scopo. Tutto ciò si accorda con l’affermazione : “L’interno e l’esterno (per esteso 4) possono ricevere una simile identificazione“. Una domanda interessante: il suggerimento di Duchamp ad uno spazio 4D in questa nota ha forse una corrispondenza col fatto noto che in uno spazio 4D potremmo realizzare una bottiglia di Klein senza superfici che si intersecano? La necessità della quarta dimensione per la costruzione della bottiglia di Klein senza aoutopenetrazioni è chiaramente e intuitivamente mostrato in modo non tecnico da Rosen(1997) con alcune importanti implicazioni filosofiche.

Infine, possiamo ipotizzare un possibile significato della chiusa della enigmatica nota, riguardo al fatto che l’asse “non è più verticale e non ha più l’apparenza unidimensionale“: se guardiamo agli assi come alle linee lungo le quali chiudiamo due volte il rettangolo (la prima per passare al cilindro, e la seconda per passare alla bottiglia di Klein) non abbiamo più un asse, ma due, e così non abbiamo più unidimensionalità.


click to enlarge
Moebius band
Animation A3
Moebius band
Two Moebius bands forming
a kleinian bottle
Animation A4
Two Moebius bands forming
a kleinian bottle

Nella costruzione di una bottiglia di Klein, ho mostrato che per ottenere il necessario scambio destra-sinistra nella seconda saldatura occorre effettuare una autopenetrazione. Si può tuttavia ottenere un simile scambio tagliando un cilindro e richiudendo la superficie dopo una torsione a 180°, come mostra l’animazione A3.

Se ne origina una figura topologica chiamata Anello di Moebius; questa strana figura ha una singola faccia ed un singolo bordo. Dalla congiunzione di due anelli di Moebius lungo il loro unico bordo, otteniamo una bottiglia di Klein, come l’animazione A4 può aiutare a visualizzare.


click to enlarge
Sculpture for Traveling
Figure 37
Marcel Duchamp,
Sculpture for Traveling, 1918

Nella realizzazione di Traveller’s sculpture del 1918 (Fig. 37), Duchamp sembra utilizzare una tecnica che richiama abbastanza da vicino le operazioni descritte sopra. E’ noto che incollò fra loro diverse strisce di gomma colorata irregolari, tagliate da cuffie da bagno. L’oggetto originale è andata perso e quindi occorre riferirsi alle storiche fotografie ed alla descrizione che Duchamp stesso ne fece.Nelle fotografie storiche sembra di intravedere con qualche difficoltà sia autopenetrazioni che torsioni; la descrizione dell’opera che Duchamp fece a Jean Crotti (Effemeridi, 8 luglio 1918) parla di strisce di gomma “incollate assieme, ma non piatte” (corsivo mio); penso che alludesse proprio a qualche torsione (come quella necessaria per l’anello di Moebius) prima dell’incollatura. Dalla stessa fonte apprendiamo che Duchamp considerava la Scultura da viaggio più interessante della pitturaTu m’.

4b. Bottiglia in Arte in Bottiglia


click to enlarge
50 c.c. of Paris Air
Figure 38
Marcel Duchamp,
50 c.c. of Paris Air, 1918
Pulled at Four Pins
Figure 39
Marcel Duchamp,
Pulled at Four Pins, 1915
Jean Clair (2000) afferma che Duchamp sicuramente conosceva la bottiglia di Klein e le sue importanti proprietà topologiche, ed indica nella nota precedentemente analizzata un possibile riferimento ad essa. Inoltre ipotizza che l’ampolla dell’Air de Paris del 1919 (Fig. 38) possa riferirsi ad essa (sia iconograficamente che per i problemi che essa pone). Io credo che questa osservazione mantenga la sua validità anche per altre opere di Duchamp.

Come primo ulteriore esempio pensiamo al readymade Tirato a lucido del 1915 (Fig. 39), una semplice cappa di camino. Nel disegno del 1964 che ne fece Duchamp, nella parte alta della forma vediamo una curvatura che ricorda quella della ampolla citata; per di più dobbiamo pensare che la cappa di camino serve per aiutare la circolazione convettiva dell’aria fra interno ed esterno.


click to enlarge
Fountain
Figure 40
Marcel Duchamp,
Fountain, 1917/1964

Consideriamo ora la famosa Fontana del 1917 (Fig. 40). A me pare che essa possa essere vista come una sezione trasversale della bottiglia di Klein. Il collo per la connessione col tubo dell’acqua (in primo piano nella fotografia) sarebbe l’equivalente del collo della bottiglia di Klein, che poi rituffandosi nel proprio ventre (qui la parte sezionata) andrebbe a ricongiungersi con i fori di scarico dell’orinatoio (corrispondenti al fondo introflesso della bottiglia di Klein).

Di fatto la doppia funzione come fontana (dispositivo erogatore, orientato all’esterno) e come orinatoio (dispositivo per raccogliere, orientato all’interno) sembra una prima conferma di questa lettura.

Spesso si è affermato che la firma R. Mutt (vale a dire Mutt. R., ovvero Mutt Er) starebbe per Madre (Mutter in tedesco). Ciò annetterebbe nuovo senso all’associazione fra la Fontanae la Bottiglia di Klein. Infatti la Madre è colei che potenzialmente ha nel ventre la sua progenie; il suo grembo, cioè il suo interno, si estroflette esternamente attraverso la sua progenie, che a sua volta contiene progenie al proprio interno, che presto verrà estroflessa…. Nel presente di una donna è contenuto il suo futuro; in questa contemporaneità di presente (interno) e futuro (esterno) che si esprime in una sorta di estroflessione temporale, è possibile cogliere una analogia con le proprietà della bottiglia di Klein.

Se accettiamo questo punto di vista, allora possiamo anche comprendere la criptica nota della Scatola Verde:

Non si ha che: per femmina il pisciatoio e se ne vive.
Queste considerazioni proiettano a loro volta nuovo senso sul ready-made Ritratto di Famiglia. Abbiamo già ricordato che Clair ravvede nella sagoma ritagliata le parvenze dellaFontana. Questo confronto è in effetti coerente con le osservazioni fatte sopra. Di fatto la Madre (con l’ultima nata) sta al vertice della composizione. L’esclusione della prole maschile evidenzia la continuità della linea femminile della discendenza. Il maschio è solo un accessorio riproduttivo: il padre è infatti in una posizione periferica. Perché allora la presenza del giovane Marcel in posizione centrale? La teoria della pulsione di Marcel per la sorella potrebbe essere una possibile spiegazione, ma io penso che il ruolo di Marcel sia semplicemente quello di un osservatore.

Infine voglio ricordare che la sagoma della Fontana è talvolta vista come un simbolo del Buddha. Se così fosse, e se volessimo mantenere l’analogia kleiniana, la mia opinione è che non dovremmo pensare all’immagine del Buddha seduto in posizione eretta, ma a quella in cui egli appare completamente ripiegato su se stesso, sprofondato in quella meditazione interiore che dischiude le porte alla contemplazione dell’universo. Nel saggio citato sopra,Rosen suggerisce che

“la “quarta dimensione” necessaria per completare la formazione della bottiglia di Klein implica la dimensione interiore dell’essere umano; non è solo un’altra arena per la riflessione, qualcosa che ci si pone davanti; piuttosto è ripiegata dentro di noi, implicando le profondità preriflessive della nostra soggettività”.


click to enlarge
Boîte-Series G
Figure 41
Marcel Duchamp,
Boîte-Series G
, 1968

Duchamp più volte afferma che tre particolari ready-made sintetizzano il mondo del Grande Vetro, e nella Boite-en-valise(Fig. 41) essi affiancano verticalmente la riproduzione dell’opus maior. Si tratta (procedendo dall’alto) di: 1. Air de Paris, (collocata all’altezza della Sposa), 2. Pieghevole da viaggio del 1916 (la fodera di di una macchina da scrivere Underwood) posto all’altezza dell’orizzonte, in corrispondenza al vestito della Sposa; 3. Fontana, posta all’altezza dell’apparecchio scapolo.

Non desidero qui fare una nuova esegesi di queste associazioni fra i tre readymades e le corrispondenti parti del grande vetro: personalmente trovo quella di Shearer, 1997, perfettamente convincente. Voglio invece sottolineare che sia alla sommità che alla base di questa colonna di ready-made stanno due oggetti riconducibili alla topologia della bottiglia di Klein (con qualche forzatura anche il ready-made intermedio potrebbe essere ricondotto alle tematiche topologiche degli altri due: infatti la copertura allude ad un ben delimitato spazio interno, che tuttavia, a causa della mancanza del fondo, non ha una ben definita distinzione rispetto all’esterno, proprio come nello strano prisma di Tu m’; inoltre l’oggetto è fatto di gomma, quindi e soggetto alle deformazioni continue dellageometria di gomma, come i matematici chiamano la topologia).

Questa circostanza suggerisce di riconsiderare attentamente le immagini della Sposa, la sua storia iconografica (i disegni e i dipinti del 1912, sul soggetto della Vergine e della Sposa), nonché la rappresentazione degli scapoli.


click to enlarge
The Bride
Figure 42
Marcel Duchamp,
The Bride, 1912
Sketch of the Wasp
apparatus, Green Box,
Figure 43
Marcel Duchamp,Sketch of the Wasp
apparatus, Green Box, 1934
In effetti, soprattutto la Sposa (Fig. 42), e particolarmente nel dipinto del 1912, è caratterizzata da una topologia quantomeno ardua. Possiamo osservare un intrico di tubi o vasi, connessi da aste e stantuffi che attraversando diaframmi si riversano in tasche, si gonfiano in ampolle, si estroflettono in sacche, per poi defluire in canali. E’ poi interessante notare che nessuna delle parti di questa composizione inizia e termina chiaramente da qualche parte. In particolare nella Scatola Verde troviamo uno schizzo, completo di didascalie, che rappresenta l’apparato Vespa (Fig. 43): è una sorta di cono, penetrato da un cilindro che lo percorre internamente ed alla sommità fuoriesce dal cono, pur rimanendone incapsulato in una specie di nicchia.

E’ difficile vedere in questi intrichi delle strutture che ricalchino alla lettera quella della bottiglia di Klein, ma sicuramente l’ambiguità di questo ibrido fra l’organismo dissezionato ed il motore meccanico suggerisce una topologia contorta senza chiara distinzione fra dentro e fuori, con le sue labirintiche autopenetrazioni ed il suo complesso sistema circuitale. Del resto anche le note che descrivono l’incredibile anatomia della Sposa condividono la stessa caratteristica di labirintica e circolare impenetrabilità (da questo punto di vista possiamo cogliere una sottile continuità fra il dipinto della sposa e la successiva Scultura da viaggio).

Anche nel caso della Sposa, come nei precedenti, l’analogia con la bottiglia di Klein può essere importante nella misura in cui si accorda coi significati comunemente accettati dell’opera o, ancora meglio, se può essere portatrice di nuovo senso. Ora, la contorta topologia della Sposa rispecchia la fondamentale caratteristica di chiusura sua e dell’intero Vetro: sia la Sposa che anche l’apparecchio Scapolo sono macchine autoreferenziali totalmente chiuse su se stesse; i cicli della loro attività sono di fatto drammaticamente rivolti a se stessi, come lo stesso Duchamp esplicitamente avverte in una nota della Scatola Verde:

–Vita lenta —
–Circolo vizioso —
–Onanismo-

Così, lo schema di funzionamento del Grande Vetro è un grande percorso chiuso, un labirintico circuito anulare.

In particolare vi è un aspetto della Sposa, descritto in una nota della Scatola Verde, che esplicitamente ci riconduce alle tematiche della Madre discussi sopra. Duchamp dice:

“La Sposa è alla base un motore. Ma prima di essere un motore che trasmette la sua timida potenza — essa è la potenza-timida stessa.”

Qui Duchamp propone nuovamente l’idea della Sposa che è contemporaneamente sia uovo (potenza timida) che veicolo per perpetrare l’eternità dell’uovo (motore che trasmette potenza timida), cioè Madre.

Duchamp ha ribadito più volte anche con diverse parole questo importante concetto, per esempio dicendo che la Sposa è parte del Vetro, ma contemporaneamente è il Vetro stesso. Questa paradossale identità fra parte e tutto (che abbiamo già osservato a proposito della Vespa della Sposa) corrispondente perfettamente alla paradossale identità fra dentro e fuori delle forme kleiniane di Duchamp

4c. La macchina autopoietica

Il tema del circolo chiuso autoreferenziale connesso al tema della autocreazione ha senza dubbio suggestive e affascinanti analogie con la macchina autopoietica di Maturana e Varela:

“Una macchina autopoietica è una macchina organizzata (definita come un unità) come una rete di processi di produzione (trasformazione e distruzione) di componenti che produce le componenti che (i) attraverso le loro interazioni e trasformazioni continuamente rigenerano e realizzano la rete di processi (relazioni) che li ha prodotti; e (ii) la costituiscono (la macchina) come una concreta unità nello spazio in cui esse (le componenti) esistono specificando il dominio topologico delle sue realizzazioni come una tale rete” (Maturana e Varela 78-79).

Questa definizione abbastanza difficile necessita almeno di qualche breve spiegazione.

La macchina autopoietica descritta dai due autori, in quanto sistema, è composta di parti (o unità) e relazioni fra le parti. Parti e relazioni costituiscono la struttura del sistema, e sono descritte da un osservatore (un essere umano) che può operare distinzioni e specificare ciò che distingue come unità e relazioni. Egli nota che in tale macchina le parti e le relazioni producono il mantenimento e la continua rigenerazione delle parti e delle reciproche relazioni stesse.

Una macchina autopoietica è caratterizzata da chiusura operazionale: chiusura non significa che il sistema autopoietico sia chiuso (cioè che non abbia scambi di energia e materia con l’esterno) ma che i comportamenti del sistema nell’interazione con l’esterno sono totalmente autoreferenziali; ovvero, la risposta di un sistema agli input esterni dipende esclusivamentedallo stato interno del sistema stesso e non dagli input esterni. Esprimiamo questi fatti dicendo che un sistema autopoietico è strutturalmente determinato. In altre parole un sistema chiuso operazionalmente, risponde a una perturbazione del suo equilibrio riorganizzandosi in modo da porsi in un nuovo possibile stato stabile di coerenza interna, compatibile col proprio mantenimento e col nuovo contesto prodotto dalla perturbazione. Il comportamento di un tale sistema è perciò definito autocomportamento.

Secondo questa teoria, la ricorsiva interazione fra due sistemi fa sì che essi co-evolvano plasticamente rimodellando i propri stati di coerenza interna, in modo da creare un nuovo stato di reciproca coerenza. Questo processo si chiama accoppiamento strutturale.
Nella visione di Maturana e Varela il processo della cognizione è caratterizzato dai medesimi assunti. Varela (1985) ne specifica schematicamente le caratteristiche, mettendo i sistemi autonomi (cioè i sistemi dotati di chiusura operazionale) in opposizione a quellieteronomi della concezione tradizionale:

– logica di fondo: coerenza interna (vs. corrispondenza);
-il tipo di organizzazione: chiusura operazionale ed autocomportamenti (vs. input/output);
– il modo di interazione: produzione di un mondo (vs. interazione istruttiva, rappresentazione). (155)

Dopo questa presentazione necessariamente breve del concetto di macchina autopoietica, riassumiamo quegli aspetti che sono più interessanti dal punto di vista delle argomentazioni di questo articolo.

Un sistema autopoietico è caratterizzato da alcuni principali ingredienti: autoreferenzialità, ricorsione, chiusura, circolarità, capacità di autocreazione, autorganizzazione, autocomportamenti, autoproduzione di senso. Abbiamo visto sopra che questi ingredienti sono ampiamente diffusi nell’opera di Duchamp, anche se spesso in una forma embrionale. Inoltre consideriamo ora che la bottiglia di Klein, che abbiamo riconosciuto in diverse opere di Duchamp, è talvolta usata per simbolizzare i sistemi autopoietici a causa della sua autopenetrazione circolare: vedi ad esempio Palmer (2000), che ha anche sottolineato come la bottiglia illustra perfettamente quella particolare relazione fra parti e tutto che abbiamo osservato precedentemente.

Così la nozione di sistema autopoietico permette di guardare all’opera di Duchamp ed alGrande Vetro in particolare secondo una prospettiva del tutto inedita:
il Grande Vetro ci presenta le parti (o unità) di un sistema estremamente complesso; le note della Scatola Verde prescrivono invece le relazioni fra le parti del Vetro. Il Vetro e laScatola costituiscono una struttura di un sistema ermeticamente chiuso. L’ermeneuta-osservatore opera una descrizione si questa struttura. La descrizione ha luogo in un contesto di accoppiamento strutturale fra l’ermeneuta stesso ed il sistema Scatola-Vetro.

La cosa interessante in questa interazione è che le parti del sistema osservato sembrano esibire la straordinaria capacità di riorganizzarsi plasticamente in sempre nuovi stati di coerenza interna, proprio come la mente dell’ermeneuta osservatore durante il processo cognitivo della lettura del Grande Vetro. Ciò è probabilmente dovuto alla complessità (non banalità) del sistema Vetro-Scatola.

In altri termini io guardo alla coppia Vetro-Scatola come ad un sistema ermeticamente chiuso ed autoreferenziale, che nell’interazione con l’ermeneuta sembra essere in grado di ricostruire e rimodellare se stesso ricorsivamente, co-evolvendo col mondo dell’ermeneuta; questo reciproco adattamento crea nuovi mondi, cioè produce nuovo senso, nuove ermeneutiche, ed ermeneutiche di ermeneutiche. Mi piace leggere in questa prospettiva le suggestive immagini di Madeleine Gins (2000):

D. drinks M. drinking B.–drinks-toasts.
( …)
Symbols that gaze back at . . . . . . .
Forests of gazing-back symbols-
[D. beve M. che beve B.-drinks-toasts
(…)
Simboli che guardano fisso indietro a . . . . . . .
Foreste di simboli che guardano fisso indietro–]

La capacità infinita di produzione di senso (che abbiamo già notato in piccolo negli esercizi linguistici dei giochi di parole di Duchamp) è forse la vera grande opera alchemica realizzata con il Grande Vetro.

Nella prospettiva della macchina autopoietica, paradossalmente, proprio la chiusura impenetrabile del complesso sistema Vetro-Scatola può dare conto non solo dell’incredibile numero delle sue ermeneutiche, ma, sorprendentemente, anche del fatto che nessuna di esse può essere esclusa dalle altre, e che tutte, sebbene differenti, sono mutuamente compatibili, perché ciascuna di esse è effettivamente basata su uno dei possibili stati stabili di coerenza interna del sistema.

Analoga osservazione ha fatto anche Clair, quando osservava che nessuna delle ermeneutiche precedenti, da quella di Breton a quella di Schwarz, contraddiceva la sua nuova lettura del Vetro in relazione al romanzo di Pawlowsky Viaggio nel paese della quarta dimensione (103). Questo è indubbiamente uno dei maggiori motivi di fascino del pensiero e dell’opera di Duchamp, enigmatica e non finita, cioè capace di una infinita (auto)produzione di senso.

5. Conclusioni

E’ possibile ravvisare nel corso delle vicende artistiche della prima metà del 900 un percorso, non ancora esaurientemente esplorato: quello della graduale emergenza di una nuova sensibilità, di una nuova prospettiva di interpretazione del mondo, di un nuovo paradigma, che scientificamente ha trovato completa espressione nelle cosiddette Scienze della complessità, definitivamente affermate negli anni 70.

Col termine di Scienze della complessità, e seguendo Hedrich (1999), intendo riferirmi

1) alla Teoria dei Sistemi Dinamici (TSD), che descrive e caratterizza il comportamento di sistemi di equazioni differenziali non lineari, e

2) agli ambiti applicativi che ammettono tali modelli matematici come descrizione appropriata.

Hedrich classifica anche questi ambiti applicativi in base alla loro distanza dal nucleo concettuale centrale della TSD:

a) nel primo guscio, immediatamente contiguo al nucleo centrale della TSD, troviamo quei settori delle scienze empiriche che si occupano direttamente dello studio, nei differenti contesti, dei fenomeni dell’instabilità dinamica, del caos deterministico e della dipendenza sensibile dalle condizioni iniziali;

b) nel guscio successivo troviamo le teorie scientifiche che riguardano modelli astratti di sistemi complessi, come gli automi cellulari, le reti neurali e la geometria frattale;

c) nell’ultimo guscio troviamo infine le teorie che secondo diversi punti di vista si occupano dell’autorganizzazione, come la termodinamica non lineare di Prigogine, la sinergetica di Haken, l’autorganizzazione molecolare di Eigen, l’Autopoiesi di Maturana e Varela.

In precedenti articoli (Giunti 2001a, 2001b) ho precisato il senso di questa ricerca, focalizzando l’attenzione su alcune delle manifestazioni fenomeniche peculiari del comportamento di sistemi complessi; numerosi artisti (con maggiore o minore consapevolezza) condividono una particolare attenzione per queste manifestazioni e tendono ad esprimerle nella loro opera; queste manifestazioni hanno a che fare con concetti quali feedback circolare come meccanismo causale di base, ricorsività, autoreferenzialità, autorganizzazione, frattali, topologie complesse, instabilità dinamica, dipendenza sensibile dalle condizioni iniziali, caos deterministico.

Questi aspetti sono così intrinsecamente legati l’uno all’altro che quando si manifestano (magari solo a livello embrionale) la presenza di uno implica quasi automaticamente la presenza di molti (o tutti) gli altri.

La comune sensibilità per queste manifestazioni fenomeniche dei sistemi complessi permette di stabilire legami profondi ed inattesi fra artisti che altrimenti sembrerebbero abitare pianeti totalmente differenti, come Duchamp, Klee od Escher.

Per quanto riguarda Duchamp, le mie considerazioni precedenti si sono limitate ai gusci b) e c) della classificazione enunciata sopra. Ciò non significa che non sia possibile stabilire significativi punti di contatto fra il pensiero e l’opera di Duchamp e le teorie scientifiche riferibili al guscio a). E’ vero l’esatto contrario: soprattutto le idee di instabilità dinamica e di dipendenza sensibile dalle condizioni iniziali costituiscono l’aspetto più immediatamente evidente e di fatto il più abbondantemente esplorato (si consideri ad esempio il Simposio di Harvard: Il caso di Duchamp e Poincaré, 1999). In ogni caso, a mio giudizio, un più dettagliato studio sul concetto di caos presso Duchamp sarebbe necessario, perché talvolta è confuso dai commentatori con l’idea di casualità (ovviamente presente in Duchamp) che però è un concetto differente, anche se collegato a quello di caos.

Nel precedente paragrafo ho associato il Grande Vetro (e più in generale l’opera di Duchamp) al concetto di autopoiesi. Si deve considerare tale relazione per il suo giusto significato, cioè, appunto, è una semplice associazione e non assolutamente una identità: non sostengo che l’opera di Duchamp sia una macchina autopoietica; essa tuttavia manifesta caratteristiche le quali possono essere ben descritte attraverso alcuni aspetti della teoria di Maturana e Varela. In particolare voglio sottolineare che questo accostamento non intende porsi come una nuova ermeneutica sostitutiva di qualcuna o tutte le precedenti. Al contrario desidero sostenere che questa prospettiva di lettura fornisce qualche elemento per comprendere l’inesauribile ricchezza delle ermeneutiche possibili e la loro compatibilità reciproca, sia per quelle passate e presenti, sia per quelle che (sono sicuro) si aggiungeranno nel futuro.

Infine, per quanto mi riguarda, la sintesi di come vedo io le cose, è nel titolo di questo articolo:

R. come Recursion (Ricorsione);

rO. S. (S. Or.) come Self Organisation (Autorganizzazione);

E. come Eigenbehaviours (Autocomportamenti);

Sel. come Self reference (Autoreferenzialità);

A. come Autopoiesis (Autopoiesi);

Vy come Life (Vita).


Ringraziamenti

Desidero esprimere il mio ringraziamento a Gi, mia moglie, per i suoi suggerimenti. Voglio anche ringraziare l’amico Paolo Mazzoldi per la consulenza entomologica e per la supervisione per la correttezza della traduzione. Infine sono grato a Rhonda Roland Shearer e Stephen Jay Gould per aver condiviso importanti informazioni circa i Tre Rammendi Tipo, che mi hanno indotto a modificare alcune affermazioni nel presente articolo.


Nota

Le citazioni delle note della Scatola Verde sono tratte dalla traduzione pubblicata da Maurizio Calvesi in Duchamp Invisibile. (313-348).


Bibliographies

Bateson, G. Mind and Nature. A Necessary Unity. New York: Bantam Books, 1980.

Calvesi, M. Duchamp Invisibile. Roma: Officina edizioni, 1975.

Clair, J. Marcel Duchamp. Il grande illusionista. Bologna: Cappelli, 1979.

– – – . “Duchamp at the Turn of the Cenuturies.” Tout-Fait 1.3. News (Dec. 2000) <http://www.toutfait.com/issues/issue_3/News/clair/clair.html>.

Cook, V. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. An introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.

Duchamp, M. The Bride Stripped Bare By Her Bachelors Even [a.k.a. The Green Box]. Typographic version by Richard Hamilton. Trans. George Heard Hamilton. Stuttgart, London, Reykjavik: Edition Hansjorg Mayer, 1976.

Gins, M. “Costructing Life,”Tout-fait 1.2. Art & Literature (May 2000) <http://www.toutfait.com/duchamp.jsp?postid=1137&keyword=>.

Giunti, R. “Paul Klee on Computer. Biomathematical Models Help Us to Understand His Work.” The Visual Mind 2. Ed. Emmer, M. In print (2001a).

– – – . A Complex History. Are Klee and Escher Apart Cases? Submitted (2001b).

Ghezzi, C. and Mandrioli, D. Informatica teorica. Milano: CLUP, 1989.

Gough-Cooper, J. and Caumont, J. Effemeridi su e intorno a Marcel Duchamp e Rrose Sélavy. Bologna: Bompiani, 1993.

Gould, S.J. “The Substantial Ghost: Towards a General Exegesis of Duchamp’s Artful Wordplays.” Tout-fait 1.2. Articles (May 2000) <http://www.toutfait.com/duchamp.jsp?postid=898&keyword=>.

Gould, S. J. and Shearer, R. R. “Boats and Deckchairs.” Tout-fait 1.1. Articles (Dec. 1999) <http://www.toutfait.com/duchamp.jsp?postid=757&keyword=>.

Grishman, R. Computational Linguistic. An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Gurney, K. Neural Networks. 1996 <http://www.shef.ac.uk/psychology/gurney/notes/>.

Hedrich R. “The Sciences of Complexity: A Kuhnian Revolution in Sciences?” Epistemologia XII.1 (1999) <http://www.tilgher.it/epiarthedrich.html>.

Henderson, L.D. The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983.

– – – . “Marcel Duchamp’s The King and Queen Surrounded by Swift Nudes (1912) and the Invisible World of Electron.” Weber Studies 14.1 (1997) <http://weberstudies.weber.edu/archive/Vol. 14.1/14.1Henderson.htm>.

Mandelbrot, B. Les objets fractals. Paris: Flammarion, 1975.

Maturana H. “Biology of language: The Epistemology of Reality.” Psychology and Biology of Language and Thought:
Essays in Honor of Eric Lenneberg
. Eds. Miller, G. A. and Lenneberg. New York: Academic Press, 1978. 27-63.

Maturana, H. and Varela, F. Autopoiesis and Cognition. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1980.

Palmer, K. Intertwining of Duality and Nonduality. 2000 <http://www.isss.org/2000meet/papers/20163.pdf>.

Rosen, S. M. Wholeness as the Body of Paradox. 1997 <http://www.focusing.org/apm_papers/rosen.html>.

Schwarz, A. La sposa messa a nudo in Marcel Duchamp, anche. Torino: Einaudi. 1974.

Shearer, R. R. “Marcel Duchamp’s Impossible Bed and Other ‘Not’ Readymade Objects: A Possible Route of Influence from Art to Science [Part I & II].” Art & Academe, 10: 1 & 2. (Fall 1997 & Fall 1998): 26-62; see also <http://www.marcelduchamp.org/ImpossibleBed/PartI/> and <http://www.marcelduchamp.org /ImpossibleBed/PartII/>.

– – – .”Marcel Duchamp: A Readymade Case for Collecting Objects of Our Cultural Heritage Along with Works of Art.” Tout-fait 1.3. Collections (Dec. 2000) <http://www.toutfait.com/issues/issue_3/Collections/rrs/shearer.htm>.

Shearer, R. R. and Gould S. J. “Hidden in Plain Sight: Duchamp’s 3 Standard Stoppages, More Truly a ‘Stoppage’ (An Invisible Mending) Than We Ever Realized.” Tout-fait 1.1. News (Dec. 1999) <http://www.toutfait.com/issues/issue_1/News/stoppages.html>.

Varela, F. “Complessità del vivente e autonomia del cervello.” La sfida della complessità. Eds. Bocchi G. and Ceruti M. Milano: Feltrinelli, 1985. 141-157.

Figs. 1-3, 7-11, 13-17, 18-22, 24, 25, 30-32, 34, 37, 38-43
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

In Boggs We Trust

An earlier, abridged version of this article was published in:
Dagblad Trouw (Dutch National Newspaper), Saturday February 24, 2001


click to enlarge

Figure 1
J.S.G. Boggs

When Marcel Duchamp was asked why he stopped painting at an early age, his answer was: “I don’t want to copy myself, like all the others. Do you think they enjoy painting the same thing fifty or a hundred times? Not at all, they no longer make pictures; they make checks.” Now that the art world revolves around more money than ever before, and the commodification of art has reached neurotic levels, Duchamp’s statement is hard to disagree with. But what if Duchamp had met J.S.G. Boggs (Fig. 1), an artist who actually makes bills, checks, and recently coins? As a moneymaker, Boggs seems to be the epitome of the commercial, repetitive artist Duchamp had in mind. Nevertheless, my guess is that he would take an interest in Boggs’ bills. In fact, Duchamp made some checks himself–to pay for the services of his Parisian dentist Tzanck in 1919, to help his friend John Cage raise funds for the advancement of performance art, and to satisfy a personal fan’s request for a signature at a New York gallery in 1965.


click to enlarge

Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp,
Tzanck Check, 1919

Figure 3
J.S.G. Boggs, $1 Fun
Bill
, date unknown

The parallels between the Tzanck Check (Fig. 2) in particular and Boggs’ bills go further than the laborious production process that these painstakingly precise copies spring from. Like Duchamp, Boggs documents conceptions of value that inform the art world, and investigates how worth comes into being (even though enlightenment about these matters can hardly be expected). Furthermore, he plays with economic systems as if they were children’s toys, like Duchamp did with the institutions of the art world. And if you still cherish any illusions about the absolute value of money, or art, for that matter, start thinking about Boggs’ bills.(Fig. 3)

1. In the beginning
Boggs made his first bill in 1984–unintentionally so, and without the faintest notion of the never-ending lawsuits, the media attention, and the extraordinary prices that his bills would generate in the years to follow. At the time, Boggs was sitting in a Chicago bar, making a complex drawing on a napkin that depicted the number one. Numbers were an obsession of the artist at that time; they still are, in fact. A waitress of the bar instantly developed a liking for the drawing. It reminded her of a dollar bill, and as much as she liked it, she asked Boggs to pay his 90-cent bill with it. The waitress also insisted that Boggs accept a dime in change. With a fine pen, he has been copying bills ever since.


click to enlarge

Figure 4
J.S.G. Boggs’ version
of Sacagawea Dollar
(front and back), 2001



Figure 5
Original $1
Sacagawea Coin

Recently, Boggs commemorated that original event silently: for his latest project, which started right at the official beginning of the twenty-first millennium, Boggs had 100,000 Sacagawea dollars fabricated (Fig. 4) by an organization specializing in educational materials regarding Currency. Boggs’ own version of the new one-dollar coin is slightly larger than the original, (Fig. 5) and is pressed out of plastic. The coins have six different mintmarks–J, S, G, B, M21 and CH 84. The currency artist financed their fabrication with a 5,000-dollar bill that he self-evidently drew himself.

In the seventeen years that lie in between, Boggs has managed to spend his bills in several million dollars worth of economic transactions. If Duchamp paid for his dentist, Boggs paid for a Yamaha motorbike, for countless bills in bars, restaurants and hotels, for airplane tickets, artworks, rare old bills, and many other goods. In Portland, he bought a Hamburger with a 1,000-dollar bill, and received 997 real dollars in exchange. In the first months of this year he spent over 6,000 of his new plastic Sacagawea coins, among which 1,300 were exchanged for five ounces of gold bullion. All these transactions have elements of ordinary purchases, of barter transactions of an original artwork against a mass produced consumer good, and of artistic performances that are only slightly relevant to economics.

2. After Boggs


click to enlarge

Figure 6
J.S.G. Boggs,
Swiss 100 Francs
bill
, late 1980s



Figure 7
J.S.G Boggs,
$10 FUNback, 1997

Is Boggs a counterfeiter–albeit a very successful one? No. A superficial glance is sufficient to distinguish Boggs’ bills from the original. The backside is left blank and Boggs adds some puns to the front. Instead of “In God we trust,” an orange fifty dollar bill reads “Red gold we trust”; a Swiss 100 Francs bill from the late 1980s (Fig. 6) depicts his self-portrait as an “angry young man”; on a ten dollar bill, the building of the treasury is replaced by the Supreme Court, (Fig. 7) accompanied by the text “Please give me a fair trial.” Furthermore, all bills are signed by Boggs himself, sometimes as “treasurer of art,” on other occasions as “secretary of measury.”

The problem is that Boggs does draw his bills life size and in the actual colors of the original, which resulted in legal trouble on a number of occasions. In Australia, a court case was dismissed almost right away, after which Boggs received $20,000 in damages. In England, Scotland Yard arrested him and confiscated his work while he was installing a gallery exhibition. Again, he was acquitted of the charges. To celebrate his victory, Boggs announced that he would live on self-made money for an entire year. In the United States, however, his trials have caused him more lasting trouble. When Boggs was spending a year as a fellow at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, the Secret Service raided his apartment and studio and confiscated approximately 1,300 objects.

Although the U.S. Attorney did not press charges, Boggs has been involved in a legal battle for almost an entire decade now to get all of his belongings back. Paradoxically, one of the few counterfeited bills that he owned (but did not make himself) was returned, but the Secret Service kept the clownish 1,000,000 dollar bill available by order from the Internet. Incidentally, the trial will result in the largest transaction in Boggs’ career as a money artist, since he plans to pay for the lawyer’s fee, which amounts to around a million dollars, with 100,000 dollar bills. Bogg’s lawyers, who are most sympathetic to his case, have actually promised to accept these bills as a valid means of payment.

Unlike the Secret Service, the contemporary art world does value Boggs’ bills. Museums like the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, the Museum of Modern Art in New York and the British Museum in London own copies of his work. Private collectors underscore their cultural value by offering Boggs considerable sums for a hint about when and where he spent his bills; subsequently, they pay large sums to acquire a bill from the shopkeepers who were brave enough to accept Boggs’ money. Like Duchamp, whose signature was sought after in the 1960s as if he was a celebrity, Boggs has a large following of people eager to obtain his signature. Personal fans have to pay him a small fee for an autograph, while a signature is only within reach for mavericks who are willing to spend $2,000 or more. No need for Boggs to complain about financial or artistic rewards.

In short, Boggs’ bills generate extreme, albeit contradictory, reactions. I wonder, however, if the legal trouble and the arti-financial success that his work generates are really that distinct. Note, for instance, that both the legal apparatus and the army of collectors ultimately intend to take his work out of circulation. And when it comes to their sense of humor, my expectations of a collector who pays $50,000 or more for a Boggs bill are no higher than that of a prosecutor who wants to stop Boggs from making the bills in the first place. Both try to “capture” Boggs, with either money or the law as their instrument– in vain, I presume.

3. No land for money

I met Boggs when he was in Amsterdam in early February for a performance in the “West Indisch Huis.” In the seventeenth century, the “West Indisch Huis” was built for the West Indische Compagnie, which enjoyed a monopoly on trade between America, West Africa and Holland. Currently the building is the home base of the John Adams Institute, which organizes lectures by American intellectuals, writers and artists. The title of Boggs’ performance there was I’ll take Manhattan.

At the start of the performance Boggs, 44, who has wild gray-blond hair that nearly reaches his shoulders, takes a digital picture of the audience, while a bag filled with orange plastic Sacagawea coins lies between his legs. Then he recounts the story of Peter Minuit, governor of the West Indische Compagnie, who sailed to the island of Manhattan. He was welcomed in May 1626, 375 years ago today, by an Indian clan. Soon after his arrival, Minuit bought the island from the Indians for trinkets worth sixty guilders. Among those trinkets were “wampum,” the Indian word for bead money, which had not only monetary but also cultural value for many clans–“wampum” was a means of transmitting the history of the clan from generation to generation. The Dutch, however, did not have history but money on their mind, which induced them to create their own “wampum” in order to deal with the Indians. Unknowingly, the Indians responded appropriately to the sly and sacrilegious offer of the Dutch by accepting the trinkets, but since they lacked a conception of land ownership, the Indians must have conceived of the transaction as some foreign ritual. Come to think of it, no land was exchanged for any money on that May Day in 1626.

The story of Minuit and the Indians is a perfect pre-figuration of Boggs own work; Minuit paid, just like Boggs, with improvised money, and probably needed a good share of rhetoric to do so. The color of Boggs’ Sacagawea coins is the same as the family name of the Dutch royal family: Orange. In fact, many of the first Dutch settlers on Manhattan used to live north of the island in Fortress Orange (the present Albany), and after the Dutch re-conquered Manhattan from the English in the second half of the seventeenth century, they renamed it New Orange.

Here is another parallel: the acquisition of Manhattan by the Dutch is listed in American history books for $24, mistakenly so, since the nineteenth century American historian who came up with the figure used the exchange rate of his own time rather than some seventeenth century equivalent. However, the exchange rate he used (60/24) is almost exactly the same as the present exchange rate of the Dutch guilder against the American dollar. Is there a meaning to all these parallels–synchronicities, as Boggs calls them? “I have no answers, just questions,” he says as he concludes his performance. It is the child in Boggs, who never seems to have deserted him, who needs these exercises in confusion.

4. Indecent proposal

When Boggs talks about his work, it is with great enthusiasm, cheer and wonder. However, when talking about the lawsuits, the tenderness in his eyes makes way for a furious look. Although Boggs seems flattered with the artistic and financial success of his endeavor, he does not strike me as particularly “money” oriented. Boggs admits that the material form of money is what fascinates him–the fact that it functions as a visual icon of society in a way that electronic money does not. But more than just a copier of money, he is a performance artist. When a collector recently offered to buy all his remaining coins for $100,000, Boggs refused. The golden rule is that he only parts with his money in real economic exchanges. He does not sell his work, in other words, he only “transacts” it.

“Do you think they will accept Boggs money here,” he asks in an old Amsterdam bar. Boggs insists that I will not intervene during the transaction, and promptly walks to the bar with a gentle smile on his face. Then he explains to the barkeeper with a charming voice: “Hi, I am an artist; I make my own money, and I try to spend it in real transactions. Today I would like to spend my money with you. These coins represent the value of a dollar. Would you accept four of them in exchange for two beer[s]?”

The lady looks puzzled and doubts if she should accept his offer. Before she can answer, however, her husband intervenes: “Paying with fake money is impossible,” he says aggressively, “is playing a trick” [in Dutch the husband used the word “kunstenmakerij,” which means both “making art,” and “playing a trick”]. Unsolicited, the barkeeper continues that he has been making his own living for thirty-five years, and urges Boggs to support himself with honest means as well. The next day, many refusals of his coins will follow, even at the coin shops located behind Dam Square. There is a striking pattern in the responses that his proposal evokes. Out of disbelief, men react irritated, while women often start giggling — an indication for social scientists that some taboo is being violated. Never does Boggs mention that the deal he is offering them is an offer nobody can refuse — after all, even the coins are worth much more than their face value on the resale market for Boggs’ work.

5. Resisting uniformity

By fabricating his own money, Boggs takes us back to a time when money was far from uniform. That time is not as far behind us as we tend to think. Until the nineteenth century, and in some countries up until the early twentieth century, a hodgepodge of different coins and bills were in circulation. In the United States, for instance, the dollar as we know it was only standardized in 1928. Until that time, almost any bank could issue its own bills. The Central Banks that were established in the nineteenth century were supposed to monitor the circulation of currencies and to create order in the chaotic monetary traffic of those days. As a result, the uniformity of money increased rapidly around the turn of the century, while issuing money was monopolized by the state in many Western European countries.

Around the same time, the German sociologist Georg Simmel wrote in his magnum opus Die Philosophie des Geldes that money is ultimately a destructive force. Money, that colorless and indifferent equivalent, would cover the world with an “evenly flat and gray tone,” Simmel wrote. Money reduced the diversity of goods and transactions to a common, uniform denominator. It even put pressure on relationships, Simmel argued, since social interaction was increasingly transformed into economic exchange.

In a late response to Simmel, the American sociologist Viviana Zelizer showed in The Social Meaning of Money (1994) that people do manage to resist the destructive power of money. In the second half of the nineteenth century, when monetary traffic was becoming standardized rapidly, many households started creating what Zelizer calls domestic currencies. They earmarked money for specific goals and named them Christmas money, drinking money, vacation money, etc. Moreover, these households established a direct link between the way money was earned and the appropriate spending of it. Thus, they partially nullified the alleged uniformity of money.

Currently, an area of tension is emerging comparable to that in the nineteenth century. This tension is exactly what provides Boggs’ art with the necessary ammunition. On the one hand, the uniformity of money has entered an era of renaissance due to the introduction of the EURO in the European Union, no less than eleven different currencies will disappear at once on January 1, 2002. Because of the increasing use of credit cards and payment by means of a PIN code, money is on its way to becoming extinct in its material form of bills and coins. In the global economy, money can only be spotted as changing numbers on computer displays in anonymous offices. “You see?” Simmel mumbles posthumously.

At the same time, however, a widespread and multifaceted resistance against this ongoing standardization of monetary traffic is emerging. Look at the new republics that came into being after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the crisis in the Balkans. One of the first political acts in these countries is the introduction of their own currency, which serves as a symbol of national unity. As inhabitants of a small country, the Danish population had good reasons to vote against the introduction of the EURO in a public referendum that was organized last fall. And on the Internet, where you would expect the ultimate triumph of money’s uniformity, new electronic currencies like e-gold are coming into being. Finally, it is remarkable that in the last decade, local currencies have been established in a number of places, like the British LETS (Local Exchange and Trading Schemes), Ithaca money in the American college town, or Noppes in Amsterdam. Like Boggs, many citizens refuse to reconcile themselves with the uniformity of money.

6. The Fragility of Money

All of these manifestations of resistance – Boggs’ bills in the first place — emphasize the conventional nature of money. If a businessman remarks that Boggs’ money is not real, Boggs acts surprised. Why would it be less real than the money we spend in everyday life? With a smile he replies that it costs the Central Bank only a few cents to print the bills we use, whereas Boggs himself has to put many hours into making his own money. It is a reversal of Duchamp’s institutional critique, addressing the economy rather than the art world. Whereas people demand originals rather than mass produced objects inside the walls of cultural institutions, Boggs’ original work is not accepted in the economic realm as a stand-in for the ready-made bills of modern Central Banks.

Thus Boggs forces people to come to terms with the fragile basis of money, with the fact that money lacks a solid, material basis. It solely derives its value from agreement—a widespread agreement, for that matter, but certainly not more than that. Many people still think that we can exchange our paper bills for gold at the Central Bank in a case of emergency, but that possibility was abolished in most countries in the first half of the 20th century. Given the conventional basis of money, it is easy to understand why objects as diverse as pearls, horse blankets, beads, rice, salt, gold, playing cards or cigarettes could serve as media of exchange in the past. (Boggs united them in an installation for the New York office of the consultancy firm Accenture.) Because many of these means were neither divisible, transportable or perishable, they did not survive the test of time. In that respect, Boggs argues tongue in cheek that his own Sacagawea coin is a good competitor of the original. It is both lighter and larger than the original which makes it easier to distinguish from a quarter.


click to enlarge

Figure 8
David Greg Harth, “I Am
America” dollar bill
, July 1998
© David Greg Harth, New York

Figure 9
René Magritte,
Ceci n’est pas une pipe
[This is not a pipe]
, 1926

David Greg Harth, another American artist with a fascination for money, underscores that the value of money is ultimately founded on trust.(Fig. 8) On one-dollar bills he puts stamps with texts such as “I am not a dollar” (the parallel with René Magritte’s painting Ceci n’est pas une pipe (Fig. 9) goes without saying.) “He is right,” says Boggs. Ultimately, the bill is not a dollar at all, at most a representation of it. The bill is real, but the dollar itself is an abstraction… just like God. Indeed, it is remarkable how fundamentally modern monetary systems are grafted onto religion. According to Boggs the invention of both money and God date from the same era, and the traces are still visible in our own days. Just think of the double meaning of words like “redeem,” or the root of the word “credit”–it is a direct derivative of the Latin word for believing. The side of Dutch coins reads “God Is With Us,” while “In God We Trust” is printed on American bills.

7. Keep Boggs in circulation


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Figure 10
J.S.G.Boggs, On Broadway
(Dance Dollar)
, 1995
Private Collection, Larchmont, NY

Given the fragility of money, it is hardly surprising that Boggs’ proposals arouse such hostile reactions. It confuses people to a greater degree than they are comfortable with. And who can blame them? How easily trust in economic value can be undermined and the consequences have lately been illustrated when investors gained billions of dollars on the NASDAQ and lost them as easily when stock prices collapsed only months later. As mysterious as the rise and fall of the Internet economy is the creation of value that Boggs realizes by printing his own money. Without the help of any official institution–the Central Bank in the last place–he sneaks plastic coins into the economy with a face value of 100.000 dollar. Their real value is even many times higher: a month after their first release, a complete set of six one-dollar coins was sold on Ebay for $87. It goes to show that as painstakingly as the fundamentals of our modern monetary system were established in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, so easily are they tampered with. Or, as Boggs remarks: “When you are dealing with an abstraction, the borderline between something and nothing is very subtle.” (Fig. 10)

Fig. 2
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

*Works by Boggs © J.S.G. Boggs–courtesy Szilage Gallery

R. rO. S. E. Sel. A. Vy

1. The Odyssey of Stoppages

1a. Three Standard Stoppages


click to enlarge

Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp,
Three Standard Stoppages, 1913-14

Scholars have already carefully underlined that the operative procedure described by Duchamp for the execution of Three Standard Stoppages (1913-14) (Fig. 1) seems to be unreliable. By means of experimental proofs we have the evidence that it is seemingly “unobtainable,” somewhat like Duchamp’s Stoppages. Furthermore, an inspection of the work at MoMA (Museum of Modern Art in New York City) shows two tacks at the opposite extremities of the thread on the backside of each canvas. These tacks seem to exclude what the famous note contained in the Green Box, (also entitledThe Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors Even, as the project it accompanies), definitively describes. Rhonda R. Shearer and Stephen J. Gould have already thoroughly documented these findings (1999), but even they highlight Duchamp’s insistence about the truthfulness of the note when directly and explicitly asked about this subject. In the following paragraph I present some considerations on this topic.


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Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp,
Tu m’, 1918

A simple measurement shows that the distance (as a straight line) between the visible extremities of each Stoppage is constant. Indeed, in Tu m’(Fig. 2) (description in a successive paragraph) the Stoppages appear carefully coupled, end against end. However, it is absolutely improbable that three threads, when freely dropped, dispose themselves showing, three consecutive times, the same distance between their extremities. This seems to confirm once more the practical impossibility to obtain the result shown by Duchamp in Three Standard Stoppagesaccording to the instructions contained in the note of the Green Box.

However, if Duchamp claims obstinately that he followed that operative protocol, this insistence induces some reflections. His work is intentionally marked with misleading traps and ambiguities; however, Duchamp usually operates in such a manner that our own sense deceives us, not his words per se. His challenge to the observer is fair and correct–the traces are intentionally ambiguous, but they are upfront with the observer in their objectivity–and the cleverness and analytical thinking involved in the interpretation of them is left to the reader.

Interestingly, we note that in the Stoppages, Duchamp carefully masked the equality of the lengths (in straight lines) of the three threads and their wooden templates.


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Figure 3
Marcel Duchamp,
Miniature version of Three Standard Stoppages,
in Boîte-en-valise, 1941

So, let us observe Duchamp’s “traps” that occur when the work is vertically displayed (as the orientation of the text labels of each thread suggests). For this aim I shall consider the miniaturized reproduction of Three Standard Stoppages in the Boîte-en-valise(1941) (Fig. 3), where all the six components of the work (3 threads and 3 wooden templates) are surely disposed by Duchamp himself. But similar considerations can be done for all the different dispositions I know, including that at MoMA.

The labels, placed near the bottom side of the canvases, are carefully lined up to each other, whereas the threads are glued starting from different distances from the top, which prevents us from comparing at a glance the lengths and the lining up of the extremities of the threads. One may impute this displacement to the randomness of each drop of the threads. Remember, however, that Duchamp cut the canvas strips (where the threads are glued) after the drop, successively, several years later. Duchamp could pay the same attention that he paid to the alignment of the labels to the alignment of the starting points of the threads. He used deceiving techniques analogous to these thread alignments for the presentation of the three wood templates. First, the order of the presentation of the threads (T) is, to say, TA, TB, and TC, whereas the wooden templates (W) are presented in the order WC, WA, WB. Second, the templates are rotated by 180° relative to the corresponding threads, which once more makes the comparison at a glance difficult. Third, in order to overlap the template on the correspondent thread, we have to mentally reverse the wooden templates WC and WA, because their outline shows a mirror symmetry with respect to the correspondent threads TC and TA, which presents new difficulties if one is looking for constant landmarks in the vision. The resulting scheme follows.

Fili (F)
  Sagome (S)
FA
FB
FC
SC
SA
SB
rotazione
a 180° & ribaltamento
rotazione
a 180° & ribaltamento
rotazione
a 180°

Finally in two templates the starting point for the curvilinear outline is marked by a well-visible dent in the wood (and at the same distance from the upper side), whereas in the third one we observe once more a displacement (forward) for the starting point of the curvilinear outline. With this last template it seems that Duchamp wants to give us a little clue: in this case there isn’t a dent at the starting point of the curvilinear outline, a dissimilarity that we perceive immediately.

We do not know whether these displacements in the composition of the elements are fortuitous. (We know, however, that Duchamp was very scrupulous when planning his works.) If not, we can think that what is so carefully hidden must prove extremely important. In the contrary case, we can at least understand why, so far, scholars haven’t considered the objective datum I discuss here in relation to the new difficulties it introduces for accepting the operative protocol declared by Duchamp for the Stoppages.

Hence, however it turns out, the constant distance between the extremities of each thread seems to be a crucial point.

Now, if Duchamp really let the threads drop down, then there must be some device to hold the distance between the extremities during the drop in such a way that they remain constant. At this point, we can conjecture several different techniques of execution, consistent with three types of evidence: what we can see in the Stoppages, what is described in the Green Box note, and what Duchamp claimed in several interviews. A few possible examples follow.

The first hypothetical device may be a simple tutor, as in the sketch in Fig. 4 (below)– the tutor would drop together with the thread.

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Fig 4
Stoppages Device 1

The surplus of thread relative to the regular length of one meter, visible at the extremities of the device, would make up the stretches necessary for the tacking that we observe on the back side of the canvases. (They could already have the needle necessary for the tacking inserted.)

Two vertical slide bars could form another device, depicted in Fig. 5 (below). Like the first example, in this case, we could have a thread surplus for the tacking at the opposite extremities of the thread.

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Fig 5
Stoppages Device 2

Although we must look at these devices as pure conjecture, we can at least acknowledge that in both cases, during the drop they would permit the thread to twist as it pleases, to keep that smooth linearity that seems impossible to obtain by dropping the thread freely, and to hold the distance between the extremities constant. Furthermore, (save for some mischievous reticence) the procedure described in the Green Box would turn out truthful and disprove notions that Duchamp was dishonest during the interviews.

However it turns out, by looking at Three Standard Stoppages we can consider two fixed points A and B, and three lines running through them, as showed in (Fig. 6).

click images to enlarge


Fig 6
Axiom of three
lines running through
two fixed points

This can evoke in our mind the Euclidean axiom of existence and unicity of the straight line through two points. It is well known that the Stoppages’ motif often reappears in Duchamp’s other works and acts as a basis for the development of further important conceptual ideas. We can consider that it is not arbitrary to think of this work as a sort of axiom, starting from which Duchamp deduces the construction of the whole building of his work (not exclusively geometric). However, it is important to realize just what exactly this axiom exerts.

In his funny and seemingly naive manner, it appears that Duchamp wants to remove from the Euclidean axiom the assumption of the unicity of the straight line through two points: the straight lines would be infinite, all of them obtained randomly by dropping the thread, and the three Stoppages representative of all of them (after all, we must remember that often in Duchamp’s work, “3” stands for multiplicity or infinity.) Indeed, we have known for quite some time that Duchamp was very interested in non-Euclidean geometry. Henderson states that:

For Duchamp, the n-dimensional and non-Euclidean geometries were a stimulus to go beyond traditional oil painting and to explore the interrelationship of dimensions and reexamine the nature of three-dimensional perspective. Like Jarry before him, Duchamp also found something deliciously subversive about the new geometries and their challenge to so many long-standing ‘truths.’ (341)

In any case, Duchamp’s conceptual operation is less naive than it seems at a cursory glance. In geometry, concepts like point, straight line, plane and so on, aren’t defined: they areprimitive entities or concepts; they are indirectly defined by their given usage rules, which are axioms and theorems; in other words, in a given geometry, point, straight line, plane…etc. can be whatever behaves exactly according to the axioms and theorems of that geometry. For instance, in the famous Poincaré’s model of hyperbolic geometry, the plane is depicted by means of a circle, and the straight line is a particular circumference arc. There seems to be an awareness of this aspect in Duchamp’s Stoppages; after all we know that Duchamp loved reading geometry texts, and as Shearer points out in Marcel Duchamp’s Impossible Bed and Other ‘Not’ Readymade Objects… Duchamp knew some aspects of Poincaré’s thought in particular (26 – 62). However, what is interesting in the perspective of this article isn’t the possible non-Euclidean content of the Stoppages‘ axiom, but the removal of the assumption of unicity. With this axiom Duchamp seems to claim a new principle: the one of repetition, or more precisely, the principle of the iteration of the same procedure following scrupulously the same rule.

1b. Network of Stoppages


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Figure 7
Marcel Duchamp,
Network of Stoppages, 1914


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Figure 8
Marcel Duchamp,Young Man
and Girl in Spring
, 1911
Figure 9
Young Man and Girl in
Spring
(1911), rotated 90°

The Stoppages reappear in a new work executed in the same period: the Network of Stoppages (1914)(Fig. 7). The network is painted on the unfinished second version of the earlier Young Man and Girl in Spring (1911) (Fig. 8). First, we note that with respect to the original orientation of Young Man and Girl in Spring (Fig. 9), the background for the Network is rotated by 90°. Many scholars, including Gould and Shearer, have noted that for Duchamp the right-angled rotation has special meaning and importance; this rotation usually denotes a passage from an n-dimensional space to an n+1-dimensional space (because adding a new dimension requires a new Cartesian axis, perpendicular to all the other previous). In the present case we have the passage from the monodimensionality of the single Stoppage, to the bidimensionality of the Network. But generally for Duchamp a rotation by 90° highlights the presence of a qualitative leap. Let us try to understand what kind of leap we see in the Network.

The thesis I assert here is that with this work Duchamp intuitively further focuses a new concept that today we call recursion, a concept that was latently under elaboration for some years, as we shall see.

In fact, in the Network Duchamp uses the Stoppages recursively: we have three Stoppages repeated three times, and the sets of three are organized in a hierarchical manner expressed by means of a quite abstract tree graph which seems to underline a ramification. The same ramification is the formal unifying motif of the painting Young Man and Girl in Spring, although here the ramification has the specific meaning of doubling: indeed, the whole composition is based on a Y-shaped motif. According to La sposa messa a nudo in Marcel Duchamp, anche, we must trace this motif back to the alchemic symbolism, where Y stands for androgyny (Schwartz, 111). Both the Young Man and the Girl lift their open arms as in a Y; their bodies themselves have an unnatural oblique disposition which, when observed upside-down, shows once more the Y-shaped ramification. At the bottom of the composition we note two branching arcs while at the top we find the ramification of a tree. At the center of the composition we find a circular shape, inside of which we see a little human figure. The tree with its branching starts from this circular shape; hence, if we look at the figures of the Young Man and the Girl as an extension of the tree branches, they constitute the ramification of the small human figure at the center of the composition. (According to Schwarz, the branching arcs at the bottom are buttocks, the circular figure represents Mercury in the ampoule, and the ramification of the tree represents a phallus; finally, the path I described would be followed backward, as the desire of re-conjunction of the youths into the primordial androgyne unity).

Whatever interpretation one gives for the painting, it shows an objective datum: the one of a doubling cascade, at which I look as a formal antecedent of the recursive motif. Furthermore notice that the spherical shapes, suggested by the arcs at the bottom of the composition, are repeated, by both the ampoule and several flowered shrubs in the background; and, more interesting, inside the spherical shrubs we observe several pink spherical inflorescence (like in the hydrangea). Thus we have a new suggestion of recursion: spherical flowers, inside spherical inflorescence, inside spherical shrubs, among other spherical shapes. Here, in addition, we have a first evidence of that repetition on a lower scale (shrub, inflorescence, flower) we’ll discuss later.

The spherical motif is in turn connected with an ulterior important motif: the one of the circularity. Once again, by following the doubling cascade in the painting one notices that the two arcs at the bottom (like fountain jets) sustain the circle containing the small human figure, starting from which the branching tree grows; the branches fall down again, by means of the ramification of the human figures of the youths, which in turn lean their feet just on the starting arcs at the bottom of the composition. In other words, in the painting we can see a sort of convective motion which circularly returns to the starting point.

Hence, executing the Network of Stoppages on the (unfinished) replica of Young Man and Girl in Spring, Duchamp points out the formal antecedents of the work. We can underline the close continuity between the two works observing that the sole definitive detail of the replica is the bust of the girl with her lifted and opened arms: this human ramification is grafted on the ramification of the Network with perfect continuity. This (recursive) graft of a work into another work will be, even in the following years, a distinctive element in Duchamp’s activity.

Previously we said that for Duchamp the right-angled rotations are special signals, by means of which our attention is alerted. Let’s examine the possible meanings in this case.


click to enlarge
The Bride Stripped Bare by
Her Bachelors, Even [a.k.a. The
Large Glass
], 1915-23

The bending of the Girl’s bust and the position of her arms denote her standing position, which is clearly contradicted by the orientation of the painting; it is saying, in essence, that it is not the figurative element of the girl that is important, but the formal motif of the branching. So, in the passage from the Youths to the Network, Duchamp asks us to focus our attention on a conceptual aspect (the one of recursion), while the narrative element (the one of the psychical world of the youths and of the connected events) is openly confined to the background (but clearlynot removed): this passage to the abstraction is the first qualitative leap.

As for the second leap, we can see it in the passage from a base 2 iteration (the doubling) to a base 3 recursion (three times three Stoppages). We have already underlined that often for Duchamp “3” means multiplicity or infinity.

I cannot conquer the temptation of advancing some interpretative conjectures: perhaps we are observing the lying Bride subjected to the tentacular embrace of the Bachelor, with arms lifted in the pleasure of the senses. Perhaps the Network doesn’t represent tentacles but flames: flames of desire or punishment. Perhaps we are witnesses of Duchamp’s progressive focusing of that man-machine graft that we shall see fully represented in the Large Glass(Fig. 10).


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Figure 11
Marcel Duchamp,
Nine Malic Moulds, 1914-15

However it turns out, the next station in the odyssey of Stoppages is marked by a new right-angled rotation, by means of which theStoppages‘ Network is prospectively projected into a horizontal plane, becoming the Capillaries’ system in the Bachelor Apparatus of the Large Glass. We need not stress the qualitative leap connected with this new rotation. It also implies (among other important considerations) the exportation of the principle of the number “3” (and of the number “9”) to the Large Glass, starting from the Malic Moulds (Fig. 11), which must be one for each Capillary, hence they must be just nine. (whereas we know from the reading of the Green Box notes that in the initial project they were only eight.)

1c. Tu m’

In 1918 Duchamp produced his last painting Tu m’, where he resumes and further elaborates the themes he developed in the meantime in the Large Glass. Inside the painting (which Schwarz, 1974, gives a complete and convincing interpretation) the Stoppages reappear in a new and strange composition, which I shall analyze in this section.

At the bottom left corner of the composition, we have a representation of the Stoppages‘ templates; here it seems that Duchamp wants to play fair: the templates are carefully lined up, in such a manner as to stress their equal length. The Stoppages are directly represented elsewhere in the painting, as we shall see below. However, Duchamp uses only two of the three templates, the first and the last; the central one, not used here, is the same that deceived us in Three Standard Stoppages (perhaps an expiation).

A hand painted roughly in the middle of the composition points clearly to the right side, where, at a glance, we immediately recognize the Stoppages; they are newly coupled, and form four pairs: the red Stoppage (corresponding to the lower template) and the black one (upper template). Interestingly, for the two upper pairs (a pair of pairs) the Stoppages have the same orientation, while in the lower pairs (another pair of pairs) the Stoppages have different orientations. Thus, we have a pair of pairs of pairs: a new hint of recursion, even though it returns to base 2.

Remember that we already observed the same oscillation between 2 and 3 as the numerical base for the recursion in the notes of the Green Box, where Duchamp projected only 8 (= 23) Malic Moulds (from which 3 Capillaries for each Mould should depart), while the definitive choice will be 9 (= 32, one for each Capillary). But this choice is not definitive, as is testified by the return to the 2 in Tu m’.

Let’s return to the description of the painting. The Stoppages seem to be freely soaring on the surface of the painting. Some colored rays, irradiating several circumferences, depart perpendicularly from the Stoppages (painted à la Kandinsky, suggests Schwarz). The rays prospectively suggest the dimension of the depth, and they seem vague allusions to evolutes and involutes of a curve that Duchamp could have read in geometry texts. Or, following Henderson the rays with their irradiation could be an allusion to the presence of electricity. In The King and the Queen Surrounded by Swift Nudes (1912) and the Invisible World of Electron she says that

“Similar circular or spiraling imagery would continue to serve Duchamp in several subsequent works as an indicator of the presence of electricity or electromagnetism.”

Considering the depth suggested by the colored rays, our attention is attracted by a strange, skewed, milk-colored quadrilateral, slightly perceptible relative to the background with almost the same color. Thus, we notice that the four pairs of Stoppages start exactly from the four vertexes of the quadrilateral, perpendicular to it, forming a strange prism in perspective. The fact that theStoppages and the quadrilateral must be considered as a unique object is prospectively stressed by the shared vanishing point, placed on the lower side of the painting, on the right of the pointing hand. Hence, Duchamp attracts our attention to the strange prism (see Fig. 13).

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Figure 13
A prism in perspective with
shared vanishing point,
Tu m’ (1918), detail

There is an interesting ambiguity (most likely intentional) in the choice of the representational system of this strange prism. We already observed its perspective frame with its vanishing point. Now, according to the rules of perspective, the farthest Stoppages would be perspectively shortened, but the Stoppages axiom imposes the rigid conservation of the lengths. All of this implies an axonometric (and not perspective) vision. As a consequence, Duchamp doesn’t draw (he can’t do it) the second face of the prism (parallel to the milk-colored first one), because this face would determine a second vanishing point, as showed in Fig. 14.

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Figure 14
Second vanishing
point of the prism,
Tu m’
(1918), detail

Hence, the prism is simultaneously depicted by means of both a perspective and axonometric representational system. It therefore delimits an ambiguous space that, furthermore, seems to be closed but is really open. On the other hand, the Stoppages being generalizations of segments and straight lines, it was to be expected that the space delimited by the prism had some generalized properties relative to an ordinary space. But the discovery of the major extraordinary property of this region of the space is due to the fine observation capacity of Gi Lonardini, my wife. To understand it, we must turn our attention to the readymade shadows painted in the composition.

Starting from the left of the painting, we first have the shadow of the Bicycle wheel (1913) (Fig. 15) (following Schwarz’s interpretation, it would stand for Duchamp). Moving along to the right we observe the shadow of the Corkscrew (1918) (Fig. 16) (according to Schwarz, it would be the phallus of the Bachelor-Duchamp, which desires to consummate the incest with the Bride, and this would be the meaning of the tear in trompe l’oeil at the center of the painting). Finally, at the right, the shadow of the Hat Rack (1917) (Fig. 17) hung from the ceiling, symbolizes the hanging as punishment for the incest (again according to Schwarz).

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  • Figure 15
  • Figure 16
  • Figure 17
  • The shadow of Bicycle Wheel
    (1913) in Tu m’
    (1918), detail
  • The shadow of Corkscrew
    (1918) in
    Tu m’
    (1918),detail
  • The shadow of Hat Rack
    (1917) in Tu m’ (1918), detail

What may elude us is the fact that, in the painting, a fourth shadow is (almost) ever present, the true one (i.e. not painted) projected by a true bottlebrush planted in the center of the tear, perpendicularly to the canvas; and with this fourth, even the 3 shadows would be recursively brought again to 4 (= 22).

I felt uneasy observing that the shadow of the Hat Rack seems awkwardly executed with respect to the other shadows whose execution is instead impeccable. Then I noticed that, while in the photos of the readymade the Hat Rack shows six stems, in the projected shadow one seems to see (although with some uncertainty) more than six stems: one, well marked, showing its typical curl, and others, blurred and only slightly suggested… Gi’s interpretation is that we are observing the shadow of a shadow. This is the extraordinary (recursive) property of the generalized space enclosed by the prism.


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Figure 18
Marcel Duchamp,Pencil-ink miniature of
Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2,
1918

A biographical event of Duchamp’s seems to be in relation with what we observed, and it seems to indicate a persistent presence of the themes, here discussed, in Duchamp’s thoughts that year. Reading Gough-Cooper and Caumont’s Effemeridi, I learned that on July 23rd, 1918, Duchamp gave his friend Carrie Stettheimer, for her doll-house, a pencil-ink miniature (9.5×5.5 mm) of his Nude Descending a Staircase, No.2 (1912) (Fig. 18), that was collocated in the miniaturized dance room. So, we observe the same idea of repetition in a box that we encountered in Tu m’, but here we have the further important specification of the reduced scale.


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Figure 19
Marcel Duchamp,
The Delights of Kermoune, 1958

We can recognize traces of the same idea of repetition in boxes and on a reduced scale in other works too. Recall, for example, The Delights of Kermoune (1958) (Fig. 19): Duchamp created a tree-graph that recalls the Network of Stoppages, composed by pine needles fixed on a sheet of paper with the same tacking technique used for the Stoppages; it was a “thank you” present for the hospitality received in Kermoune by Claude and Bertrande Blanc pain. Duchamp put this work in a gray box hidden in the wardrobe of the hosts.

In the idea of repetition in a box and on a reduced scale we may read a sort of foreboding of the fractal idea. A note in the Green Box states:

Make a mirrored wardrobe.

Make this mirrored wardrobe for the silvering.

Thus, if Blancpain’s wardrobe had been such a mirror wardrobe (with inner mirrors), then the little gray box would have been infinitely repeated, just as in a fractal.


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Figure 20
Marcel Duchamp,
Boîte-Series F, 1966


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Figure 21
Marcel Duchamp,
Reproduction of Why Not Sneeze
Rrose Sélavy(1920)for the Boîte, 1940

The theme of the repetition on a reduced scale is also widely developed in the Box in a Valise(1941) (Fig. 20). Here we notice another evocative resumption of the strange prism first observed in Tu m’: let’s look at the little model of the readymade Why Not Sneeze Rrose Sélavy?(1919), contained in the Box in a Valise (Fig. 21). The articleMarcel Duchamp: A Readymade Case for Collecting Objects of Our Cultural Heritage Along with Works of Art underlines an important property of the work: the starting point is a photo (2D) of the famous readymade, the little bird cage is cut along the right, upper and left sides, and this outline is then folded upon a skewed, solid prism (3D) which has the section similar to the one of the prism of Tu m’. Thus, we have a 2D surface, which simulates a 3D object (by means of the fold along the upper side of the front of the cage, so that it can overlap to the correspondent side of the prism). So, the dimensionality of this new object is a number between the integers 2 and 3.


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Figure 22
Marcel Duchamp,
Mina’s Poems à 2 Dimensions ½, 1959

Figure 23
Photograph of Katherine Dreier’s
library room before the installation of Tu
m’
, 1918

There is a surprising coincidence: the idea of repetition (of the shadow, in Tu m’, and of the object on a reduced scale in the Box in a Valise) is openly associated with a non-integer dimensionality, i. e. with a fractal dimensionality: another evocative property of the strange prism. Elsewhere, we find Duchamp’s direct mention of a non-integer dimension in the verses composed for Mina Loy–the title is Mina’s Poems à 2 Dimensions ½ (Effemeridi, April, 14th, 1959) (Fig. 22).

A clarification is now necessary, to avoid possible misinterpretations. I don’t want to state either that the examined works (and others that we shall examine below) are fractals (fractals are well defined geometric objects, with several well defined properties which we can’t observe in Duchamp’s work: this is absolutely obvious), or that Duchamp explicitly grasped such a concept. We must only acknowledge that the idea of recursive repetition on a reduced scale is objectively related to that of fractals, so that, in the presence of the idea of recursion (even though only suggested) the idea of the fractal must also take some evidence, at least in an embryonic form. I think (and I began to show elsewhere, Giunti, 2001b) that, to the extent that the intuition of recursion will become more and more definite and precise by artists, the representation of fractals will become conscious and more and more clear and pertinent (as in the cases of Klee and Escher). However, we must recognize that the intuition of a non-integer dimensionality, especially when related to the repetition on a lower scale, is an extraordinary intuition that we can’t observe in any other artist of the same period, as far as I know. Remember also that Mandelbrot’s first book on fractals, Les objets fractals gives the mathematical definition of fractals in terms of non-integer dimensionality and was issued in 1975. Finally, we return to Tu m’ for a last consideration. A photo I have seen in the Effemeridi (January 9th, 1918) shows Miss Dreier’s library room before the installation of Tu m’ (Fig. 23). In the foreground we clearly see a birdcage. Maybe the strange prism was originally conceived just as a cage.

1d. Two Brief Circular Digressions


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Figure 24
Figure 25
Marcel Duchamp, Sad Young
Man on a Train
, 1911
Marcel Duchamp, Family
Portrait (1899),
1964

Although the recursion theme is frequently linked to the Network‘s motif (we shall see in the next section another important example referred to as the Odyssey of Stoppages) we recognize its echo in other works along the whole artistic career of Duchamp. Here I want to discuss two further works, both referable to his biography; these works are emblematically placed at the opposite extremities of his artistic life: Sad Young Man on a Train (1911) (Fig. 24) and Family Portrait (1964) (Fig. 25). Sad Young Man on a Train is a self-portrait (where Duchamp represents two loved objects: the pipe and the walking stick). Let’s read Duchamp’s description:

“First, there’s the idea of the movement of the train, and then that of the sad young man who is in the corridor and who is moving about; thus there are two parallel movements corresponding to each other.”

The idea of a movement inside a movement is certainly recursive, and it is underlined by the alliteration of the original French title of the painting: Jeune homme triste dans un train. This alliteration (triste, train) is analyzed in an important article by Gould (2000)recalled extensively in the next section of this paper. Among other considerations, Gould wondered why the young man must be sad at all. He hypothesizes several answers. Here I shall resume two of them.

The first cause of sadness is that the young man feels that his own motion adds only a scarce contribution to the overall motion of the train. This conjecture in turn leads me to a further conjecture. If we look at the motion inside the motion as an early intuition of a fractal idea, then the sadness of the young man would be related to the intuition of an important feature of fractals: the dimensional scaling. Thus, the sadness of the Young Man is similar to the one of Achilles, in Zeno’s paradox, for his impossibility to reach the Turtle.

The second cause of sadness is that in his motion the young man is twice bound (by both the binary and the corridor) to a linear pathway, which Duchamp feels is strongly limiting, so there seems to be the perception of the narrowness of the linearity; in fact, in the same year Duchamp introduced the important element of the circularity in the iterations for his workYoung Man and Girl in Spring by means of the convective turbulence which we observed in a previous paragraph.


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Figure 26
Duchamp’s family photo,
1899

Figure 27
Salvador Dalì, Slave Market with
Invisible Apparition of Voltaire’s Bust
,
1940

Let’s now consider Family portrait, where we see the child Marcel together with his parents and little sisters. It is an old family photo (1899) (Fig. 26), which Duchamp cut along a strange curvilinear outline. We recognize an Arcimboldo-like technique, widely experimented also by Salvador Dalì (see for instance the famous Slave market with invisible apparition of Voltaire’s bust (Fig. 27) or, even better, The Face of the War, both 1940): we see a human bust composed of several little human busts–recursion everywhere (and something which again recalls fractals). The mother’s and Magdeleines’ heads form the eyes, while Marcel’s head is the mouth. Finally, Suzanne, Yvonne and the father Eugene form the arms and the thorax. Let’s avoid for now the discussion about the meaning (not only psychological) of the exclusion of Marcel’s brothers from this composition (we shall recall this important topic in a successive paragraph, because it requires the acquisition of new elements). Instead, let us confine ourselves to the formal consequences of this exclusion: we notice that the shape formed by the exclusion of a brother functionally constitutes the armpit’s socket in the overall bust of busts, while the permanence of the second brother and of the other people present in the original photo would hamper the perception of the overall outline of the bust.

Notice now that Duchamp obtained this readymade starting from a family photo (his own family). Thus, the recursion we noticed on the formal level is related on the content level to the cyclical recursion of the generation replacement, in which the sons become the new parents, who will have new sons, who will become new parents… Hence, we have the association between cyclicity and recursion; it is reinforced because the outline of the cutting no longer shows the rectilinear rigidity of the early self-portrait, but instead the smooth curves and roundness which Clair (2000) relates to those of a famous readymade: the Fountain (1917). A more detailed discussion about Clair’s observation follows in subsequent paragraphs.

Finally, if we look at the Family Portrait as Duchamp’s phylogeny, then we could look at the early self-portrait of Sad Young Man on a Train as his ontogeny (after all this self-portrait isn’t static, but instead a rather dynamic representation of his own temporal evolution). If so, we would recognize the implicit statement that both processes share the same recursive modalities.

2. Rrose’s Language

2a. The Language note in the Green Box

We read, in the Green Box, two notes stating the following:
Conditions of a language:The search for “prime words“(“divisible,, only by themselves and by unity) and
Take a Larousse dictionary and copy all the so-called “abstract”words, i. e. those which have no concrete reference. Compose a schematic sign to designating each of these words (this sign can be composed with the standard stops) These signs must be thought of as the letters of the new alphabet. A grouping of several signs will determine

(utilize colors-in order to differentiate what would correspond in this [literature] to the substantive, verb, adverb declensions, conjugations etc.)

Necessity for ideal continuity. i.e.: each grouping will be connected with the other groupings by a strict meaning (a sort of grammar, no longer requiring pedagogical a sentence construction. But, apart from the differences of languages, and the “figures of speech”peculiar to each language-; weights and measures some abstractions of substantive, of negatives, of relations of subject to verb etc, by means of standard-signs. (representing these new relations: conjugations, declensions, plural and singular, adjectivation inexpressible by the concrete alphabetic forms of languages living now and to come.) This alphabet very probably is only suitable for the description of this picture.

In this note Duchamp hypothesizes about the creation of an artificial language, which must be a generalization of the natural languages. The logic underlying the construction of the new language has two essential and deeply linked aspects: recursion and abstraction.

Regarding the first aspect, the one of recursion, notice that the atomic elements of the new artificial language, i.e. the phonemes, are certain words, taken from a dictionary of a natural language, which Duchamp indicates as prime words (my hypothesis about the meaning ofprime words follows in the next paragraph). Therefore, the phonemes of the new languages are words (combination of phonemes) of a natural language: phonemes of phonemes, words of words. A new graphical sign, i.e. a grapheme, composed by means of the “standard-signs” that I think to be (at least related to) the Stoppages (hence a grapheme composed by graphemes) corresponds to each new phoneme of the artificial language. Hence, by synthesis, Duchamp designs an artificial language, which in turn is a recursive generalization of a natural language.

The second aspect, the one of abstraction, can be referred to the focus on the syntax of the new language; indeed Duchamp talks about ideal continuity, strict meaning, weighs and measures some abstractions of substantives, of negatives, of relationswhereas the semantics is clearly devalued, when he talks about the absence of pedagogical a sentence construction, and the “figures of speech”peculiar to each language

Looking at the application of the recursive method and at the vocation to generalizing abstraction, it is possible to see a sort of intuition of two aspects that really characterized the linguistic research in the second half of the 900’s.

Starting from the first aspect, we know that in the so called generative grammars the phrase is constructed by means of recursive grammatical rules, where each symbol can be rewritten (i.e. substituted) by other symbols, which in turn can recursively contain the rewritten symbol itself (see for more information Ghezzi and Mandrioli, 1989, or the classic Grishman, 1986).

The production of a sentence by means of such a grammar is often depicted in a special tree-graph in which each rewriting corresponds to a new ramification. The following simple example is taken from the classic Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. An introduction. The starting symbol is S (as Sentence); the other symbols are: NS (Nominal Syntagm), VS (Verbal Syntagm), D (Determinant), N (Noun), V (Verb); the grammatical rules are:

S -> NS VS

NS ->D N

VS ->V NS

(the symbol -> stands for “rewrite with”).

This grammar produces simple sentences in the form Subject-Predicate-Object, as in: “The child drew an elephant” (Cook). The corresponding tree-graph is depicted in Fig. 28.

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Fig. 28

Interestingly, we notice that the sole grapheme produced by Duchamp by means of theStoppages is a tree-graph: the one of Network of Stoppages.

As for the second aspect, it is well known that the project of a universal grammar is nothing else than an effort to individuate, by means of progressive generalizations, those grammatical abstract structures shared by all the natural languages. Maturana (1978) precisely points out the importance of the recursion as the universal founding element of each language:

Conversely, the ‘universal grammar’ of which linguists speak as the necessary set of underlying rules common to all human natural languages can refer only to the universality of the process of recursive structural coupling that takes place in humans through the recursive application of the components of a consensual domain without the consensual domain (52).

Coming back to Duchamp, the note on the language ends with an important consideration: what is this new artificial language for? Duchamp answers explicitly: it’s for describing this picture, i.e. the Large Glass (recall that the notes in the Green Box refer to the design and to the description of the Large Glass). Why is it so? Because this language shares with theLarge Glass the nature of progressive and recursive generalization. But, if this language serves for the description of the Large Glass, then it also serves for the writing of the Green Box notes (which are parts of the Large Glass), among which it is just the note itself that describes the language. (Here, we have a first example of those self-referential cycles typical of Duchamp that we shall discuss below.) Indeed we notice that in the Green Box notes Duchamp really uses a strange and stretched syntax, that does not agree with the usual syntactical rules of the natural languages– we have transitive verbs without objects, hypothetical periods without conclusions, unsolved parentheses, and so on. Thus, the language of the Green Box is perhaps a first approximation of the new language, “representing these new relations: conjugations, declensions, plural and singular, adjectivation inexpressible by the concrete alphabetic forms of languages living now and to come.

2b. Prime Words and Self-Production

Now, we shall try to clarify the meaning of the prime words. Following the suggestion of Calvesi, I think that they are primary vocal emissions, like the word “Dada,” or like the first syllabic articulations of a child, like “mama”or “papa,” when they haven’t yet a precise semantic reference (to abstract words, says Duchamp), i.e. when they are still only pure combinations of elementary phonemes (135). So I look at the prime word and the abstract word as synonyms.

Thus, we can see some first examples of this new language, I think, in Duchamp’s nonsensical wordplays based on cascade alliterations. The most famous being:

Esquivons les ecchymoses des Esquimaux aux mots exquis.

Gould analyzed this in the above-mentioned essay (which for me has been a source of both inspiration and pleasure). It is a question of rearrangement of some principal syllabic groups, that in this context we can consider as phonemes. The fact that from this combination of syllables into words a non-sense arises corresponds exactly to the programmatic devaluation of the semantic aspect relative to the syntactic one. Here syllables have a value exclusively because of their combinatory grammar, but they haven’t any overall semantic reference; there isn’t any pedagogical a sentence construction, any figures of speech (read, as I believe: idiomatic form). The grammatical rules for the syllabic rearrangement are abridged in the following simple (recursive) grammar that can generate Duchamp’s wordplay (and infinitely other non-senses, with the same structure, in a pure French grammelot):

The starting symbol is P.
The other following symbols (in capital letters) are the so-called non-terminal symbols (i.e. the symbols which must be rewritten): W (Word), C (Connective), D (Double syllable), S (Simple syllable), E (syllable starting with E), K (Key syllables). Finally, the following (in lower case) are the terminal symbols (i.e. the symbols which cannot be rewritten): es, ek, ex, von, mos, mò, mot, key, keys; they transliterate the pronunciation of the corresponding French syllables.

The symbol | stands for “or”.

P -> W C W

C -> C W C | les | des | o (notice that this rule is recursive)

W -> D S | S D

D -> E K

E -> es | ek | ex

S -> von | mos | mò | mot

K -> key | keys

Fig. 29 shows the derivation of the “Duchampian”wordplay.


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Figure 30
Marcel Duchamp,
Rotary Demisphere
, 1925

Gould correctly underlines that the above analyzed wordplay is written by Duchamp on the Rotary Demisphere (1925) (Fig. 30), an optical device which, when rotating, produces the appearance of an outwardly cascading spiral. This meaningful association is very important because it shows that, in Duchamp’s intentions, in this play there is a potentially unfinished self-production. Using the grammar proposed above, it is easy to verify this property, if one accepts not only non-sense sentences, but also non-sense words. (Remember that the present grammar generates sentences in a pure French grammelot.)

2c. Self-Reference and Self-Production of Sense

Duchamp’s wordplays often have another important characteristic: the self-reference. As a first example let’s consider the following:

Si la scie scie la scie

et si la scie qui scie la scie

est la scie qui scie la scie

il y a suissscide metallique.

[If the saw saws the saw

and if the saw sawing the saw

is the saw sawing the saw

then we have metallic sew-cide]

The Effemeridi (March 17th, 1960) states that the passage was composed for an artwork by Jean Tinguely (a happening, we could say) in whose scene an army of saws was originally planned.

The wordplay isn’t memorable, but it is particularly useful to introduce what is interesting here, because the image of the saw that saws itself is clearly self-referential. Furthermore, there is the above-discussed element of the proliferation by means of the syllabic repetition (self-construction). Finally, we have at least an amusing suiss-scide, with nearly identical sound of suicide, i.e. a suicide of Swiss (suiss) saws (scie – scide), that Duchamp wrote maybe thinking to the army of saws that move themselves with perfect synchronism (with Swiss precision) until the unaware, dull suicide (self-destruction).

Curiously, Tinguely’s happening had unexpectedly the same characteristics of the wordplay: it was self-destructive (and this was expected) but also self-constructive (and this was unexpected). Fanciful machinery, made with each sort of recycled material, had to destroy itself with a fire. At a certain moment, fearing for the possible explosion of an extinguisher because of a sudden breakdown, Tinguely begged for the intervention of the fireman, who, instead, hesitated; when finally the fireman started with his operations, he risked lynching, because the spectators considered his intervention inopportune in the happening context. So, in the interaction of the work and its spectators, an unexpected and quite comic event happened to self-generate.

Let’s now return, after this digression, to the self-reference theme in Duchamp’s wordplay. He pursues this target with subtle and effective techniques. As examples I shall consider two wordplays, recalling Gould’s analysis and developing some further considerations. The first wordplay, is quite simple:

Cessez le chant

laissez ce chant

[stop the song

leave this song]

Gould observed that swapping the initial consonants (C and L) between the first two words of each line, according to the scheme:

C L

L C

provokes a pleasant auditory chiasmus and, at the semantic level, an inversion in the sense of the sentence. Here I want to underline that each of the two text lines, taken for itself, hasn’t any particular value beyond its obvious semantic reference; but a new sense is created by the conjunction of the two sentences because of their internal reciprocal references: that of the auditory chiasmus and that of the sense inversion. In other words, the conjunction produces an added value that goes beyond the pure sum of the semantic value of the sentences. Hence, in the wordplay the whole is superior to the sum of the parts, and the added value is generated because of the internal cross-reference, i.e. this wordplay is self-referential.

The second wordplay, more complex and fascinating, is bilingual (French vs. Latin):

éffacer FAC

assez AC

[erase DO

enough AND]

The word éffacer sounds like a contraction of ef (F) and éffacer (erase); hence it’s meaning is somewhat like: erase the F. Now, putting into effect the command on the same wordéffacer (hence a self-referential operation), we obtain acer, whose homophone is assez, i.e. the second French word. Here all would stop, because assez means enough, as if to say: that’s enough–all is finished. Here the Latin part comes into play. Applying the same F-deletion to the first Latin word, we pass from FAC (do) to AC (and). The writing is so completed. Notice that each Latin word has a semantic value opposite to the one of the correspondent French word, so that it creates an alternation of orders and countermands, underlined by the language passage. Now we can see the most interesting part–the last word AC (and) implicitly suggests the addition of something. If this thing would be just the previously omitted F, and if we would put into effect the command (like the operations in the passage from the first to the second line) we would obtain efassez FAC, homophone oféffacer FAC. So, we would have a cyclic return to the starting point, in an infinite periodic motion.

In the latter wordplay we can see, with stronger evidence than in the former one, an intrinsic self-reference: the four words, if taken one by one, have a scarce meaning (just their direct semantic reference); but the self-established relations between those words creates an engine that produces new sense. More precisely, the first among the four words contains in itself the germ of the entire machinery, and in the internal relations with the other parts of the system it self-generates a potentially infinite circular motion. Once more, and with greater evidence, the self-reference generates new organization and then new sense.

It is evocative to think that a little jewel like the last wordplay can condense in itself a lot of features not only of several other works, but also of the whole of Duchamp’s work. Particularly, the typical Duchampian idea of re-contextualization of his previous works, as for the Stoppages, is intrinsically self-referential, because Duchamp always refers to a previous Duchamp. In the cyclic and recursive reuse without end of similar ideas in newer and newer contexts, there arise qualitative leaps, those generalizations, and added values or, as Bateson says, that hierarchy of logical types that make his work and his thought progress (155). Each single element of his inextinguishable mental activity contains in nuce, the essential germs of the overall features; each element of his production potentially contains a quantity of information sufficient to re-run through (if not to recreate) his whole production, exactly as in living organisms, where each cell contains the genetic information potentially able to regenerate the whole organism.

3. The World of the Wasp

Let’s consider another important note from the Green Box.

Top Inscription.
obtained with the
draft pistons.
(indicate the way
to “prepare” these pistons).
Then “place” them for
(2 to 3 months)
a certain time and let
them leave their
imprint as
3 nets through which
pass the commands
of the Pendu femelle (commands
having their alphabet and
terms governed by the
orientation of the 3 nets
[a sort of triple “cipher”
through which
the milky way supports
and guides
the said commands]

Next remove them
so that nothing remains
but their firm
imprint i.e. the
form permitting all
combinations of letters sent
across this said triple form,
commands, orders
authorizations, etc.
which must
join the shots
and the splash

This note contains a lot of suggestions, which so deeply resonate with my way of seeing things that it is very difficult for me to discern the projections of my imagination from what is really present in the note itself. However, due to the peculiar language used by Duchamp for the Green Box‘s notes, the analysis always gives free play to one’s imagination (intentionally, I think, by Duchamp).

Coming to the specific of the note, observe that the Bride’s orders pass through the nets: in the Large Glass system the Bride is queen. One of her essential apparatuses is the so-calledWasp, and the idea of a wasp-queen makes me think to the social organization of the Hymenoptera (insects like bees, ants or just wasps). At the vertex of their complex systemic organization there is the queen. In addition to the important reproductive function, she regulates many vital functions of the community by emitting some chemicals (for instance, when a certain concentration of a particular hormone produced by the queen is reached, then a new swarming is induced). In fact, from the viewpoint of an observer, these chemical emissions can be described as orders. The Milky Way at the top of the Large Glass really has the appearance of an entomological representation (like a large caterpillar, or like the flaccid abdomen swollen with eggs of the queen). An undeniable entomological suggestion also emanates from the description of the Wasp apparatus, with its secretions, thefilamentous material, the ventilation mechanism (just as in a hive). In brief, the first suggestion is for a representation of an insect society: at the top lies the queen, at the bottom there is the intricate industriousness of the subaltern castes.

Now, we must underline a little but meaningful detail. In the Large Glass the Wasp is only one of the Bride’s apparatuses, whereas I have spoken about it in terms of just the Bride. This identification between part (the Bride’s apparatus) and whole (the same Bride) is authorized by Duchamp himself, as we shall see better below, because it is the same relation, openly declared by Duchamp, between the Bride (part) and the Large Glass(whole): thus, the identification whole-part (Glass-Bride) is repeated (once again) on a lower scale (Bride-Wasp). Furthermore the identification Bride-Wasp is consistent with the Bride’s psychic portrait made by Schwarz (1974). Schwarz also recalls a nightmare which Duchamp had while he was terminating the Bride in Munich: the Bride became an enormous insect that atrociously tortured him (147).


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Figure 31
Marcel Duchamp,
A Guest + A Host = A Ghost, 1953

(A little digression. These entomological considerations would give a new meaning to the Duchampian wordplay: A Guest + A Host = A Ghost (Fig. 31), already widely analyzed by Gould. Several wasp species lay the eggs on a previously paralyzed caterpillar, or even inside it; thus, at the hatch, the wasp grubs will feed with fresh flesh, having the precaution to eat starting from the non-vital organs of the caterpillar. Talking about the parasitism, the parasited organism, here the caterpillar, is the said Host; if we indicate the wasp grub with the word Guest, then the word Ghost will perfectly depict the fate of the poor Host).

The second suggestion refers to the punched cards of either the industrial machines or certain musical barrel organs which one could see along the streets of a city in those years. Punched cards means coded orders; hence, the queen issues her orders disposing particular combinations of the holes of the three nets–punched cards.

The three nets are placed in loco for as long as two or three months, so that they can spontaneously and plastically assume a shape that conforms to the flow of the Bride’s orders; thus, the code useful to transmit the Bride’s orders will automatically organize itself–it will be based on the system of the mutual positions of the three nets. This code will then remain permanently impressed in the system by means of their trace.

Thus, Duchamp provides for a prolonged exposition of the nets to stochastic events, which will model their own code. Biologically speaking, all of this evokes the idea of an adaptive process in progress. Exactly like the one that produced evolution of the effective biochemical system for the self-regulation of a hive. My last suggestion from the note, closely linked to the previous one, is mathematical, and refers to the behavior of the neural networks. Gurney states his definition :

A neural network is an interconnected assembly of simple processing elements, units or nodes, whose functionality is loosely based on the animal neuron. The processing ability of the network is stored in the inter-unit connection strengths, or weights, obtained by a process of adaptation to, or learning from, a set of training patterns.

In other words, the neural networks are mathematical formalisms, which simulate the interconnections and the activity of the neurons. They are formed by numerical variables, interconnected in a network-like structure and recursively recalculated, in such a manner as to optimize the performances of the network itself, on the basis of the target for which it is designed, proceeding by trial and error.

Hence, the neural networks model themselves by a process sometime very similar to the evolutionary one, on the basis of the target, which is pursued as a goal from time to time. Thus, the neural network exhibits the same kind of organization as the evolutionary process. This is the way the networks learn: it is a process of internal and recursive self-organization.

Undoubtedly, all this is very similar to the behavior imagined by Duchamp for his Milky Way nets.

It is now necessary to underline that in the years when Duchamp wrote the Green Box notes neither biochemistry (especially when applied to the study of hive behavior) nor the neural networks (especially the so called multi-layer network as is the case with Duchamp’s networks) existed. Thus, I don’t want to hypothesize either that Duchamp was influenced by the knowledge of similar concepts, or that he wished to create with the Large Glass a metaphor of a complex system (like an insect society or a neural network). Finally, I don’t want to state that Duchamp’s intuitions forerun in any way some future specific scientific result.

Simply, I think that concepts like recursion, self-reference, circular feedback (and so on) are so deeply linked to each other and to the concept of self-organization that the latter aspect must somehow find an expression, even if implicitly, as in the present case.


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Figure 32
Photograph of Duchamp’sDust
Breedingby Man Ray, 1920

Further clarification is also necessary. Even in the elaboration of the Seives of the Large Glass, Duchamp planned another stochastic system (and really executed it), exposing the Glass to the dust throughout about four months. The famous photo of the detail of the Large Glass covered by dust, executed in 1920 by Man Ray, titled Dust Breeding (Fig. 32), documents the result. However, this example (although important) doesn’t concern the above suggested aspect of self-organization. Here we have a pure randomness that blindly produces a result, surely interesting, but without a specific organization; there we had the same randomness, which instead produced organization (the creation of the code). In other words, and speaking in terms of entropy: here we have an increasing entropy, where previously we had a reduction.

Marcel’s Topology

4a. Recipe for Bottles

We read, in the Green Box, the note:

on the other hand:
the vertical axis considered separately turning on
itself, a generating line at a right
angle will always determine
a circle in the 2 cases 1st turning
in the direction A, 2nd direction B-
Thus, if it were still
possible; in the case of the vertical axis at
rest., to consider 2 (contrary) directionsfor
the generating line, the figure engendered
(whatever it may be.)
can no longer be called left
or right of the axis-

-As there is gradually less differentiation
from axis to axis., i.e. as all the
axes gradually disappear
in a fading verticality the front and the back,
the reverse and the obverse acquire a
circular significance: the right and
the left which are the 4 arms of the front and
back. Melt. Along the verticals.
———
The interior and exterior (in a fourth dimension)
can receive a similar identification. But
the axis is no longer vertical and has no longer
a one-dimensional appearance

Although the note is a little bit obscure, and as always it’s reading is arduous, it is possible to hypothesize an interpretative model consistent with its principal parts; furthermore, this model is consistent with some of Duchamp’s capital works.

Let’s start by imagining a simple rectangle. If we trace a vertical axis across this rectangle, it makes sense to distinguish right and left parts of the figure with respect to that axis. Now, if we are in a 3D space, with a circular motion we close the rectangle to form a cylinder (Fig. 33A).

click images to enlarge


Fig. 33A

It no longer makes sense to speak about right and left parts with respect to the previous axis, because each point of the cylinder can be reached by turning toward either the left or the right.

If we use the rectangle to represent the cylinder in a 2D space, we must agree upon the simple convention that the two vertical sides of the rectangle represent the same line of the cylinder. Thus, if we walked on the rectangle as if we were on the cylinder, when we went out from the left side we could continue re-entering from the right side, and vice versa, as shown in Fig. 33B and 33C.

 

click images to enlarge

  • Fig. 33B
  • Fig. 33C


click to enlarge

Figure 34
Marcel Duchamp,
Door: II, rue Larrey
, 1927

Duchamp applies this idea to the suggestive Door: II, rue Larrey(1927) (Fig. 34): when the door closed the left room, it opened the right one, and vice versa.

Thus, by means of a simple circular closing we pass from the rectangle to the cylinder, losing the distinction between left and right. Now, if we repeat the same operation of circular closing starting from the cylinder, we obtain a ring-shaped figure which topologists call torus or tore (Fig. 35A). With this operation we lose the distinction between high and low too.

click images to enlarge

Fig. 35A

As before, if we use the rectangle to represent the torus in a 2D space, we must agree upon a second simple convention, analogous to the first one: the two horizontal sides of the rectangle represent the same circular line along the torus, and if we walked on the rectangle as if we were on the torus, when we went out from the top side we could continue re-entering from the bottom side, and vice versa, as shown in Figs. 35B and 35C.

click images to enlarge

  • Fig. 35B
  • Fig. 35C

And now the last step. Referring once again to the rectangle in the 2D space, let’s maintain the two rules for the entrance and the exit of the horizontal and vertical edges of the figure, and let’s introduce a minute but important alteration in the second one: when we go out from the top side we could re-enter from the bottom swapping left and right, and vice versa (Fig. 36B and 36C).

click images to enlarge

  • Fig. 36B
  • Fig. 36c

It is easy to show that when we pass from the cylinder to the torus we haven’t such a swapping between left and right. See in Fig. 35A the edges of torus before the closing: we go along the two circles walking with the same orientation (clockwise or anticlockwise in both the cases).

click images to enlarge


Fig. 35A

So, the torus doesn’t agree with the new swapping of the second rule. We only obtain the desired effect if the starting cylinder penetrates itself (with a self-intersection) before closing itself, as depicted in Fig. 36A

click images to enlarge


Fig. 36A


click to enlarge

Animation A1
The formation
of the Klein Bottle

Animation A2
The Klein Bottle

The new strange figure is called Klein Bottle (from the mathematician Klein). The Animation A1 helps us visualize the formation of the bottle starting from a simple rectangle, by means of two simultaneous circular closings. (En passant: we must admit that a kleinian surface would be a very good place to draw a suicide saw!)

This object has many strange topological properties, among which we cite the most important for the present context: while the torus has two faces (internal and external) the Klein bottle has only one face, because with this figure we lose the distinction between inner and outer, as we can easily verify with a little effort of imagination, in a mental exploration of the object. Animation A2 may serve to illustrate this aim. All this agrees with the note’s statement: “The interior and the exterior (in a fourth dimension) can receive a similar identification.” An interesting question arises: does Duchamp’s hint to the 4D space in this note have a correspondence with the well known fact that in a 4D space, we could realize a kleinian bottle without intersecting surfaces? Rosen presents the necessity of a fourth dimension for the building of a kleinian bottle without self-penetration clearly and intuitively in a non-technical manner with some important philosophical implication (1997). Finally, we can hypothesize a possible meaning for the enigmatic final statement about the axis, that is no longer vertical and has no longer a one-dimensional appearance–if we look at the axes as the lines along which we close the rectangle twice (the first time for the passage to the cylinder and the second time for the passage to the Klein Bottle) we no longer have one axis but two, so we no longer have unidimensionality.


click to enlarge

Animation A3
Moebius Band

Animation A4
Two Moebius
Bands forming a kleinian bottle

In the construction of a kleinian bottle I showed that in order to obtain the left-right swapping during the second conjunction, self-penetration is necessary. It is, however, possible to have a similar swapping by cutting a cylinder and re-closing the surface after a 180° torsion, as showed in Animation A3.

It originates a topological figure called Moebius band; this strange figure has a single face and a single edge. From the conjunction of two Moebius bands along their sole edges, we obtain a kleinian bottle, as Animation A4 may help visualize.


click to enlarge

Figure 37
Marcel Duchamp,
Sculpture for Traveling, 1918

In the realization of the Sculpture for Traveling (1918) (Fig. 37), Duchamp seems to use a technique, which quite nearly recalls some of the procedures previously described. It is well known that he glued to each other several irregular colored rubber strips, cut from bathing caps. The original object is lost, so we must refer to the historical photo and to the description that Duchamp himself did. With some difficulties, some self-penetration and some torsion can be possibly discerned in the historical photos; the description of the work made by Duchamp to Jean Crotti (Effemeridi, July 8th, 1918) talks about rubber strips “glued together, but not flat” (italics mine). I think he alluded to some torsion (as the one necessary for the Moebius band) before the gluing. From the same source we learn that Duchamp considered the Traveler’s Sculpture more interesting than the painting Tu m’.

4b. Bottle in Art in Bottle


click to enlarge


Figure 38
50 c.c. of Paris Air, 1918
Marcel
Figure 39
Marcel Duchamp,
Duchamp, Pulled at Four Pins, 1915

Jean
Clair (2000)
argues that Duchamp surely knew the Klein Bottle and
its important topological properties; he also indicates in the previously
analized note a possible reference to it. In addition, he hypothesizes that
the ampoule of Paris Air (1919)
(Fig.
38)
could refer to it (both iconographically and
because of the problems it poses). This statement holds its validity for
others of Duchamp’s works as well.

 

The readymade, Pulled at Four Pins (1915) (Fig.
39)
, a simple chimney cowl, is another example. In the related
drawing, which Duchamp made in 1964, at the top of the shape we see a
curvature that recalls the glass curl of the ampoule, cited above; furthermore,
we must think that a chimney cowl serves to aid the convective circulation
of the air between inside and outside.


click to enlarge

Figure 40
Marcel Duchamp,
Fountain, 1917/1964

Let’s now consider the famous Fountain (1917) (Fig. 40). It seems to me that it can be seen as a transversal section of a kleinian bottle. The neck for the connection with the water pipe (in the foreground of the historic photo) would be the equivalent of the kleinian bottle neck–plunging in its own belly (here the sectioned part) would reconnect with the holes of the draining (corresponding to the introverted bottom of the kleinian bottle).

In fact the double function as a fountain (supplying device, oriented to the outside) and as a urinal (receiving device, oriented to the inside) seems to be the first confirmation of this reading.

Often the signature R. Mutt (or Mutt. R., or Mutt Er) is said to stand for Mother (Mutter in German). This adds a further meaning to the association between the Fountain and the kleinian bottle. Indeed, “Mother” is the one which potentially has in her belly her offspring; her belly, i.e. her inside, is everted
to the outside by means of her offspring, who in turn contain offspring
in inside, who soon will be everted, and so on. In the present of a woman
is contained her future; in this contemporaneity of present (inner) and
future (outer) that expresses itself in a sort of temporary evertion,
we can grasp an analogy with the properties of the kleinian bottle.

If we accept this viewpoint, then we can also understand this very cryptic note in the Box of 1914:

One only has: for female the public urinal and one lives by it.

These considerations cast in turn a new sense on the readymade Family Portrait. We have already recalled that Jean Clair looks at its outline as a template of the Fountain. This comparison is consistent with the observations above. In fact the Mother (with the last born) is at the top vertex of the composition. The exclusion of the male offspring underlines the continuity of the female line in the descent. The male is only a reproductive device: the father is indeed in a peripheral position. Why then is the presence of the young Marcel in a central position? The theory of Marcel’s drive for his sister could be a possible explanation, but I think that Marcel’s role is simply that of an observer.

Finally, I want to recall that the outline of the Fountain is sometimes regarded as a symbol of the Buddha. If this is so, and if we want to keep the kleinian analogy, one wouldn’t think of the image of the erect sitting Buddha, but instead of the one in which the Buddha is completely bent in on himself, plunged in that inward meditation that opens the door to the contemplation of the universe. In the above mentioned essay, Rosen
suggests that:

“the ‘fourth dimension’ needed to complete the formation of the Klein bottle engages the inner dimension of human being; it is not just another arena for reflection, one that stretches before us; rather, it is folded within us, entailing the prereflective depths of our subjectivity.”


click to enlarge

Figure 41
Marcel Duchamp,
Boîte-Series G, 1968

Duchamp often claims that three particular ready-mades synthesize the world of the Large Glass, and in the Box in a Valise (Fig. 41) they stand
vertically placed beside the miniature of the opus maior. They are (from the top): 1. Paris Air, at the height of the Bride; 2. Traveler’s Folding Item (1916, an Underwood typewriter cover) at the height of the horizon, where the Bride’s cloth is placed; 3. Fountain, placed at the bottom at the level of the Bachelor’s apparatus.

I don’t want to argue a new exegesis of these associations between the three readymades and the corresponding parts of the Large Glass: in my opinion Shearer’s exegesis (located in the second part of her paper) is perfectly convincing. I want instead to underline that at the top and at the bottom of this pile of ready-mades we have two objects referable to the topology of a kleinian bottle (with some straining the intermediate readymade could also be referred to the same topological themes of the others: indeed the cover hints at a well-delimited internal space which however, due to the lack of the bottom, hasn’t a well-defined distinction from the outside, just as in the strange prism of Tu m’. In addition, it is a rubber object; hence it is subjected to the continuous deformations of the rubber geometry, as mathematicians call topology).

This circumstance suggests the attentive reconsideration of the images of the Bride, her iconographic history (the drawing and the painting of 1912, on the subject of the Virgin and of the Bride) and the representation of the Bachelors.


click to enlarge

Figure 42
Marcel Duchamp,
The Bride, 1912

Figure 43
Marcel Duchamp,
Sketch of the Wasp apparatus,
Green Box, 1934

The Bride (Fig. 42), mainly in the homonymous painting (1912), is really characterized by a topology at least arduous. We can observe a tangle of pipes or veins connected by rods and pistons, which pass through diaphragms and flow in pouches, swell up in ampoules, are everted in pockets and then drain in canals. Interestingly, none of the parts of this composition starts and ends clearly somewhere. Particularly in the Green Box
we find a sketch where the Wasp apparatus (Fig. 43) is depicted with abundance of captions: it is a sort of cone, internally penetrated by a cylinder, in the vertical sense, which at the top exits from the cone but it remains encapsulated in a sort of niche.

It is difficult to see, in such a tangle, structures which literally replicate the structure of the kleinian bottle, but surely the spatial ambiguity of this hybrid of dissected organisms and mechanical engine hints at a contort topology with no clear distinction between inside and outside, with its labyrinthine self-penetrations and its complex circuital system. After all, the notes that describe the incredible anatomy of the Bride share the same circular and labyrinthine impenetrability. (From this viewpoint we can grasp a subtle continuity between the painting of the Bride and the succeeding Traveler’s Sculpture.)

In the case of the Bride too, the analogy with the topology of the kleinian bottle will be important to the extent that it agrees with the commonly accepted meanings of the work or, even better, to the extent that it can furnish a new interpretative sense. The contort topology of the Bride reflects her (and of the whole Glass) basic feature of closure: both the Bride and the
Bachelors are self-referential machines, totally closed in on themselves.
The cycles of their activity are dramatically turned to themselves, as
Duchamp himself underlines in a note of the Green Box:

Exposé of the Chariot

— Slow life —

— Vicious circle —

— Onanism –

Thus, the working scheme of the Large Glass is a great closed pathway, a labyrinthine annular circuit.

In particular there is an aspect among those of the Bride,  described in a note of the Green Box, which explicitly brings us back to the theme of the Mother discussed above. Duchamp says:

“The bride is a motor. But before being a motor which transmits her timid-power–she is this very timid power…”

Here Duchamp proposes once again the idea of the Bride that simultaneously is egg (timid-power) and device to perpetrate the egg’s eternity (motor that transmits her timid-power), i.e. Mother. Duchamp repeated this important concept several times,

with other words, for instance by saying that the Bride is part of the Glass, but simultaneously is the Glass itself. This paradoxical identity between parts and whole (which we already observed with regard to the Bride’s Wasp) perfectly corresponds to the paradoxical identity between inside and outside of the kleinian shapes of Duchamp.

4c. The Autopoietic Machine

The theme of a closed self-referential cycle, connected with the self-creation, has without doubts evocative and fascinating analogies with Maturana and Varela’s autopoietic machine.

An autopoietic machine is a machine organized (defined as a unity) as a network of processes of production (transformation and destruction) of components that produces the components which: (i) through their interactions and transformations continuously regenerate and realize the network of processes (relations) that produced them; and (ii) constitute it (the machine) as a concrete unity in the space in which they (the components) exist by specifying the topological domain of its realization as such a network (Maturana and Varela, 78-79).

This quite difficult definition requires at least some brief explanation. As a system, the autopoietic machine described by the two authors is  of parts (or units) and relations between the parts. Parts and relations constitute the structure of the system, and are described by an observer (a human being) that can operate distinctions and specify what he distinguishes as parts and relations. He notes that in such a machine they produce the maintenance and the continuous regeneration of the parts and of the reciprocal relations themselves.

An autopoietic machine is characterized by operational closure: it doesn’t mean that the autopoietic system is closed (i.e. that it hasn’t exchange of matter and energy with the outside) but that in the interaction with the outside the behaviors of the system are completely self-referential, i.e. the answer of the system to the external inputs depends exclusively upon the internal state of the system itself, not upon the nature of the external inputs. We express these facts by saying that an autopoietic system is structure determined. In other words, a system with operational closure answers to the perturbation of its equilibrium reorganizing itself in such a manner as to put itself in a new possible state of internal consistence, compatible with the self-maintenance and with the new context caused by the perturbation. The behavior of such a system is therefore defined as eigenbehavior.

According to this theory the recursive interaction between two systems allows them to co-evolve plastically, remodeling their own states of internal consistence, in such a manner as to create a new state of reciprocal consistence. This process is called structural coupling.

After Maturana and Varela, the cognition process is characterized by the same assumptions. Varela schematically specifies its characteristics, putting the autonomous systems (i.e. the systems with operational closure) in opposition with the heteronymous ones:

– basic logic: internal consistence (vs. correspondence);- Kind of organization: operational closure and eigenbehaviours (vs. input/output)- Interaction modalities: production of a world (vs. instructive interaction, representation) (155).

After this necessarily very brief presentation of the concept of autopoietic machine, we now resume those aspects that are more interesting from the viewpoint of the argumentation of the present paper.

Some main ingredients characterize an autopoietic system: self-reference, recursion, closure, circularity, and capability of self-creation,self-organization, eigenbehaviors, and self-production of sense. We have seen above that these ingredients are widely scattered in Duchamp’s work, even if often in an embryonic form. In addition, consider now that the kleinian bottle, which we recognized in several of Duchamp’s works, is sometimes used, for its characteristic circular self-penetration, to symbolize the autopoietic systems. Palmer (2000), for example, also underlines how the bottle perfectly depicts that particular relation between parts and whole that we previously observed in Duchamp’s work.

Thus, the notion of autopoietic system allows us to look at Duchamp’s work and particularly at the Large Glass according to a completely unusual perspective. The Glass presents to us the parts (or units) of an extremely complex system; the notes of the Green Box prescribe the relations between the parts of the Glass. The Glass and the Box constitute the structure of a hermetically closed system. The hermeneut-observer operates a description of this structure. The description takes place in a context of structural coupling between the hermeneut and the GlassBox system.

The interesting thing in this interaction is that   the parts of the observed system seem to exhibit the extraordinary capacity of plastically reorganizing themselves according to more and more different and novel states of internal consistence, just like the mind of the hermeneut-observer during the cognitive process of reading of the Large Glass. This is probably due to the complexity (non triviality) of the Glass-Box system. Thus, the Glass-Box pair can be viewed as being a hermetically closed and self-referential system, which in the interaction with the hermeneut seems to be able to recursively reconstruct and remodel itself, co-evolving with the hermeneut’s world; this reciprocal adaptation creates new worlds, i.e. it produces new sense, new hermeneutics, and new hermeneutics of hermeneutics. I like to read in such a perspective the evocative imagines
by Madeleine
Gins (2000)
:

D. drinks M. drinking B.–drinks-toasts.

[…] Symbols that gaze back at . . . . . . .

Forests of gazing-back symbols-

Maybe this capacity of an infinite production of sense (that we already observed on a lower scale in the linguistic exercise of the Duchampian wordplays) can be the true alchemic grand œuvre realized with the Large Glass.

Paradoxically, in the perspective of the autopoietic, just the impenetrable closure of the complex system GlassBox can explain not only the incredible number of its hermeneutics, but, surprisingly, also the fact that none of those can be expelled by the others, and that in spite of their differences, they are mutually compatible, because each of them is really based on one of the possible states of internal consistence of the system.

Clair made an analogous consideration, observing that none of the previous hermeneutics, from that of Breton to Schwarz, contradicted his new reading of the Large Glass, related to Pawlowsky’s romance Voyage au Pays de la quadrième dimension (103). This is without a doubt one of the greatest reasons for fascination in Duchamp’s thought and work, enigmatic and unfinished, i.e. capable of an infinite (self-production of) sense.

5. Conclusion

In the course of the artistic events of the first half of the twentieth century it is possible to recognize a pathway, not yet sufficiently explored: that of the gradual emergence of a new sensibility, a new perspective in the observation of the world, a new paradigm, which
scientifically has an accomplished expression in the so-called complexity
science, definitively established in the 1970s.

Following Hedrich’s The Sciences of Complexity: A Kuhnian Revolution in Sciences?, by the term complexity science I refer:

1) To Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) which describes and characterizes the behavior of coupled non-linear differential equations, and

2) To the applicative contexts that admit such mathematical models as a proper description.

Hedrich also classifies these applicative contexts according to their distance from the central conceptual kernel of the DST:

a) In the first shell, immediately contiguous to the central kernel of the DST, we find those sectors of empirical sciences which directly deal, in different contexts, with the phenomena of dynamic instability, deterministic chaos, and sensitive dependence on the initial conditions;

b) In the next shell we find the scientific theories which deal with abstract models of complex systems, such as cellular automata, neural networks and fractal geometry;

c) In the last shell we finally find the theories  which from different points of view deal with self-organization, such as the non-linear thermodynamic by Prigogine, the synergetic  by Haken, the molecular self-organization by Eigen, and the autopoiesis by Maturana and Varela.

In previous papers (Giunti, 2001a, 2001b) I pointed out the sense of this research, focusing my attention on some phenomenal manifestations, peculiar to the behavior of complex systems. Several artists (with more or less awareness) shared a particular attention for these manifestations and tend to express them in their works; these manifestations deal with concepts such as circular feedback as basic causal mechanisms, recursion, self-reference, self-organization, fractals, intricate topologies, dynamic instability, sensitive dependence on initial conditions, deterministic chaos.

These aspects are so deeply related to each other that when they appear (even only in embryonic form), the presence of one almost automatically implies the presence of many or all of the others. The shared sensibility for these phenomenal manifestations of complex systems makes it possible to establish deep and unexpected ties between artists, which otherwise would seem to reside in totally different planets, like Duchamp, Klee or Escher.

As for Duchamp, my previous considerations are confined to the b) and c) shells of the above mentioned classification. This doesn’t mean the impossibility to refer Duchamp’s thought and work to the scientific ideas contained in the a) shell. The exact contrary is true: chiefly the ideas of dynamical instability and sensitive dependence on initial conditions constitute the most evident aspect and, in fact, the most widely explored by the scholars (consider for instance the Harvard Symposium: The Case of Duchamp and Poincaré, 1999). In any case, in my opinion a more detailed study on the concept of chaos in Duchamp would be necessary, because it is sometimes confused by the commentators with the idea of randomness, obviously present in Duchamp, which is a different concept, even if related to the chaos one.

In the previous section I related the Large Glass (and more generally the whole work of Duchamp) to the concept of autopoiesis. One has to consider such a relation for its correct meaning, i.e. it is just a simple association and absolutely not an identity. I don’t state that Duchamp’s work is an autopoietic machine. However, it exhibits  some features which can be well-described by means of some zspects of the theory of Maturana and Varela. Particularly, I want to underline that this comparison isn’t a new hermeneutic, substitutive of some or all of the previous ones. Contrarily, I would like to argue that this reading perspective furnishes some explicative element to understand the
inexhaustible richness of the possible hermeneutics, and their reciprocal compatibility, both for the past and present ones and for the ones (I am sure) that will be added in the future.

Finally, as for my opinion, the synthesis of my viewpoint on the discussed subject is in the title of this paper:

R. As Recursion;

rO. S. (S. Or.) As Self Organization;

E. As eigenbehaviors;

Sel. As Self-Reference;

A. As Autopoiesis;

Vy As Life.


Acknowledgement

I want to express my thanks to my wife Gi for her suggestions. I also want to thank my friend Paolo Mazzoldi, for his entomological advice and for his supervision for the linguistic correctness. Finally, I am grateful to Rhonda Roland Shearer and Stephen Jay Gould for sharing important information about Three Standard Stoppages, which induced me to modify some statements in the present paper.


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Figs. 1-3, 7-11, 13-17, 18-22, 24, 25, 30-32, 34, 37, 38-43

©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.