image_pdfimage_print

All posts by robert

Die Frage der Schaufenster: Marcel Duchamps Arbeiten in Schaufenstern

Es ist Robert Lebel als grosse Weitsicht zuzuschreiben, dass er bereits 1959 in seinen Werkkatalog zu Duchamp die drei in den 1940er Jahren unter Leitung von Duchamp entstandenen Schaufenster aufnahm (1). Ein viertes entstand 1960–ganz passend–anlässlich der Veröffentlichung von Lebels Monographie. Gleichwohl steht eine ausführliche Auseinandersetzung, wie sie vielen anderen vermeintlich marginalen Werken Marcel Duchamps besonders seit den 1990er Jahren zuteil geworden ist, bezüglich dieser Arbeiten noch am Anfang (2). Ein Blick auf die stetig wachsende Duchamp-Literatur lässt vermuten, dass dieser Zustand nicht sehr viel länger anhalten wird. In den folgenden Ausführungen wird versucht, anhand einiger speziell auf Schaufenster bezogener Aussagen Duchamps selbst und anhand der Analyse der insgesamt vier Schaufenster, die unter Anleitung Duchamps entstanden sind, ein genaueres Verständnis davon zu erlangen, warum sich dieser oftmals in der Kunstgeschichtsschreibung als elitär verstandene Künstler einem scheinbar so profanen Medium widmete.


click to enlarge
 Philadelphia Museum of Art
Abb. 1
D.F.: Konfisserie E. Gamelin, Rouen,
Rd., ca. 1900, Bibliothèque Municipal
Rouen. Aus: Ausst.-Kat.
Joseph Cornell/ Marcel Duchamp .
. . in Resonance
. Philadelphia
Museum of Art, Ostfildern
Works of Marcel Duchamp
Abb. 2
Duchamp, Marcel: La
Mariée Mise à Nu Par Ses
Célibataire
s, Même
(Das Grosse Glas), 1915-23, Öl,
Blei, Folie, Bleidraht
und Staub zwischen zwei Glasscheiben,
277,5×175,8cm (inkl.),
Philadelphia Museum of Art, Katherine S.
Dreier Bequest, 1953,
S. 361. Aus: Arturo Schwarz,
The Complete Works of Marcel
Duchamp
(3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.),
New York 2000, S.361.

Als erste fruchtbare Periode in Duchamps Werk werden allgemein die Jahre 1911 bis 1913 angesehen. Damals entstanden die letzten Gemälde, die ersten Ideen zum GrossenGlas und eine Reihe Notizen, die teilweise erst in Bezug auf spätere Werke Bedeutung erlangen würden. Für das Jahr 1913 ist überliefert, Duchamp sei bei einem Spaziergang durch Rouen beim Blick in das Schaufenster des Konfektionärs Gamelin auf eine Schokoladenmühle aufmerksam geworden. Das Schaufenster ist in einem Stich überliefert (Abb. 1) (3). Rückblickend sagte Duchamp von der Entdeckung der Schokoladenmühle: “Das war tatsächlich ein sehr wichtiger Moment in meinem Leben. Ich musste damals grundlegende Entscheidungen treffen” (4). Mit dem Motiv der Schokoladenmühle verband Duchamp seine stilistische Loslösung vom Kubismus und eine Hinwendung zu “architektonischer, trockener Ausführung”, einer Methode, die Hand-Schrift des Künstlers ausschliessen sollte (5). Vielleicht war dies der Moment, als Duchamp beschloss, er wolle lieber “Fenstermacher” (Fenêtrier) als Maler sein (6). Die Begegnung mit der Schokoladenmühle im Schaufenster war darüber hinaus von Bedeutung für den Künstler, weil sie ihn veranlasste, dieses Gerät als ein zentrales Motiv in sein erstes Hauptwerk, das Grosse Glas (1915-23), aufzunehmen (Abb. 2). Dort erhielt die Schokoladenmühle den Platz in der Mitte der unteren Scheibe neben den Junggesellen. In gewisser Weise ist sie also zurück in ein Schau-Fenster überführt worden, nachdem Duchamp sie zunächst aus dem Geschäftskontext gelöst hatte. In ihrer immer noch lesenswerten Analyse von Etant Donnés(1946-1966), Duchamps zweitem Hauptwerk, hatten bereits 1969 Anne d’Harnoncourt und Walter Hopps bemerkt:

 

Duchamps erstes Fenster ist sein bestes: Das Grosse Glas ist weniger ein Bild als ein enormes Fenster, das auf den ständigen Fluss von Leben rundherum blickt. Umgekehrt kann man sich die Motive (images), die eingeritzt oder auf die Oberfläche geklebt sind, vorstellen als Projektionen von Gegenständen in einem zugegeben ungewöhnlichen Schaufensterraum dahinter. Aufgrund des sich ständig verändernden Umraums der Vorbeigehenden, die begleitet werden von ihren Hoffnungen, Ängsten, Wünschen, erschafft das Glas ständig von neuem eine brillante Synthese der ‘Aussenwelt’ und der Innenwelt der Imagination (7).

 

Die Geschichte des Motivs der Schokoladenmühle unterstreicht die Deutung des Grossen Glases als Schaufenster, als Projektionsfläche von Waren und Gegenständen ‘dahinter’ (8)Duchamp selbst trug den kommerziellen Zusammenhang an die Schokoladenmühle wieder heran, indem er in seinen dem Glas zugesellten Notizen, der Grünen Schachtel, Bezug auf sie nahm. Dort sprach er zunächst die erotischen Aspekte an, die mit dem Rotieren und dem Genussmittel verbunden waren (“der Junggeselle zerreibt seine Schokolade selber”). Sowohl dem Mechanismus der Mühle, als auch der Betrachtung von Schaufensterauslagen wird damit eine mögliche auto-erotische Dimension zugeschrieben. Zudem beschreibt Duchamp die Mühle auch als Ware: “kommerzielle Formel, Fabrikmarke, kommerzielles Schlagwort wie eine Reklame auf ein kleines, bunt gefärbtes Glanzpapier geschrieben (ma ausführen lassen in einer Druckerei) xxx dieses Papier auf den Artikel ‘Schokoladenmühle’ geklebt” (9)Folglich überführte er die Mühle selbst in den Warenstatus (Article), wohingegen sie in dem Schaufenster des Konfektionärs noch das Produktionsmittel für die Ware gewesen war. Es ist Ausdruck der in Duchamps Werk häufig sichtbaren Ironie, dass es merkwürdigerweise die Übernahme des Motivs in das Kunstwerk war (nicht etwa seine im ersten Schritt erfolgte Isolation aus dem kommerziellen Zusammenhang), die diese Transformation der Schokoladenmühle bewirkte.

Auf das Jahr der Entstehung von Zeichnung und Gemälde zur Schokoladenmühle, 1913, hat Duchamp auch eine Notiz datiert, die Bezug nahm auf Schaufenster und etwas mehr über die Vorstellungen verrät, die Duchamp damit verband:

Die Frage der Schaufenster.
Das Verhör der Schaufenster über sich ergehen lassen.
Die Forderung des Schaufensters.
Das Schaufenster, Beweis der Existenz der äusseren Welt.
Wenn man das Verhör der Schaufenster über sich ergehen lässt, spricht man auch seine eigenes Urteil Verurteilung aus. Die Wahl ist tatsächlich hin und zurück. Aus dem Verlangen der Schaufenster, aus der unvermeidlichen Antwort auf die Schaufenster, beschliesst sich die Fixierung der Wahl. Keine Versessenheit ad absurdum, den Koitus durch eine Glasscheibe hindurch mit einem oder mehreren Objekten des Schaufensters verbergen zu wollen. Die Strafe besteht darin, die Scheibe zu durchschneiden und darüber Gewissensbisse zu haben, sobald die Besitznahme erfolgt ist. q.e.d. (10)

Diese Stelle wird in der Literatur zu Duchamp häufig zitiert, meist jedoch metaphorisch ausgedeutet oder auf das Grosse Glas bezogen (11). Eine kurze Besprechung des Textes für sich genommen scheint daher sinnvoll, um etwas über Duchamps frühe Haltung zu Schaufenstern herauszufinden.

Die Metaphorik des Textes war–das ist bisher unbemerkt geblieben–die einer Gerichtsverhandlung. Der Passant vor dem Schaufenster wurde nicht als passiver Beobachter beschrieben, sondern zugleich als Angeklagter, Anwalt, Richter und Verurteilter in einem juristischen Verfahren. Er wurde ins Verhör genommen, musste Beweise liefern, seine eigene Verurteilung aussprechen, eine Strafe auf sich nehmen. Das Schaufenster war zugleich Ankläger (Verhör), Beweismaterial (äussere Welt), Anlass des Verbrechens (Verlangen), Opfer (Koitus durch eine Glasscheibe) und Strafmittel (Gewissensbisse). Die Art des Vergehens schien sexueller Art zu sein, zugleich im Geschlechtsakt mit den Waren sowie in der Exhibition desselben zu bestehen. Das Schaufenster befreite den Passanten von der Pflicht, den Geschlechtsakt verbergen zu müssen. Es lud ihn zu offenem Verkehr ein, forderte ihn geradezu zu gewaltsamem Eindringen auf. Das Gesetz, auf den dieser Prozess sich stützte, so muss der Leser schliessen, deutete sich in einer Moral an, die unterschwellig mitschwang, die aber gerade durch den ersten Satz explizit “in Frage” gestellt wurde, und im letzten (quod erat demonstrandum) nach einer noch ausstehenden Begründung verlangte. Die Frage, die Schaufenster für Duchamp aufwarfen, lautete, wie diese Moral zu rechtfertigen sei, die Sexualität und auch das “Lecken an den Schaufenstern” (lécher les vitrines, so der französische Ausdruck für ‘Schaufensterbummeln’) zum Vergehen machte. Konnte die Begierde, die durch eine erotisch aufgeladene Ausstellung beim Betrachter ausgelöst wird–sei es im Schaufenster, sei es durch eine attraktive Frau, oder womöglich auch durch Kunst – verurteilt werden? Gerade die Ubiquität dieser Phänomene macht eine abfällige Moral fast absurd. Wenn Duchamp das Schaufenster als Metapher für erotisches Begehren verwendete, so betonte er damit die Allgegenwärtigkeit dieses Affekts: Er kann durch jeden Menschen und jedes Objekt hervorgerufen werden.

Eine Übertragung von Duchamps Szenario auf das Konsumverhalten angesichts von Warenauslagen liegt nahe. Herbert Molderings hat diesen Aspekt durch Analogie zu Walter Benjamin zugespitzt so formuliert: “Auch Duchamp sprach nicht zu den Waren, aber die Waren hatten begonnen, zu ihm zu sprechen” (12). In Duchamps Text wird der Passant angesichts der Waren hinter der Scheibe von dem Verlangen überfallen, diese zu besitzen und zu erwerben. Kaum hat der den Kauf-Akt vollzogen, überkommt ihn Reue. Doch selbst soweit diese Auslegung in Duchamps Sinn gewesen sein mag, unterliegt auch sie seinen Bedenken gegenüber landläufigen Moralvorstellungen. Duchamp war kein Moralist. Seine eigene Skepsis äusserte er nicht als Anklage, sondern wie in dem Schaufenster-Text von 1913 durch subtiles Infragestellen. Die Beispiele der von ihm gestalteten oder mitgestalteten Schaufenster belegen, dass seine Sichtweise auf Schaufenster sich nicht auf die Fragen nach Schuld, Verführung, Sühne beschränkte (Fragen, die sowohl auf Sexualität als auch auf Konsum angewendet werden können). Die ‘Befragung der Schaufenster’ durch Duchamp gestaltete sich vielschichtiger.


click to enlarge
Tür für Galerie
“Gradiva”, 1937, Paris
Abb. 3
Duchamp, Marcel: Tür für Galerie
“Gradiva”, 1937, Paris, Photographie.
Aus: October, Jg. 69, 1994, S. 122.
Works of Marcel Duchamp
Abb. 4
Duchamp, Marcel: Tür für
Galerie “Gradiva”, 1937, Paris, Photographie.
Aus: Arturo Schwarz, The Complete
Works of Marcel Duchamp

(3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.),
New York 2000, Nr. 455, S. 743a.

Eine erste Berührung mit der Gestaltung einer Ladenfront hatte Duchamp noch in Paris gehabt. Bei dem 1937 erteilten Auftrag für die Tür von Bretons Galerie Gradiva handelte es sich, wie bei allen späteren Schaufensteraufträgen, um einen Freundschaftsdienst Duchamps. Dies bedeutete jedoch keineswegs, dass er den Wünschen oder Vorstellungen seiner Freunde entsprach, auch wenn er ihnen auf den ersten Blick oftmals entgegenkam. Die Tür für die Galerie Gradiva wies diese künstlerische Autonomie auf, die Duchamp sich nicht nur für die ‘wichtigen’ Werke vorbehielt. Photographien der Tür zeigen eine Öffnung in Form einer Silhouette zweier eng zusammenstehender Personen (Abb. 3 und 4). Antje von Graevenitz hat diese Öffnung als Initiations-Passage gedeutet, mit der Besucher den Heilungsprozess von Jensens Protagonisten nachvollziehen solle (13). Breton selbst schrieb in Bezug auf den Namen ‘Gradiva’, er bedeute auch die, welche “die Schönheit von morgen [sehe], welche den meisten Menschen noch verborgen” bliebe (14). Das Eintreten in die Galerie, in der natürlich Kunst von Surrealisten ausgestellt war, sollte nach Bretons Vorstellung den Besucher dieser Schönheit näher bringen und – wie in Jensens Geschichte – einen Beitrag zum Aufdecken des seelisch Verborgenen beim Betrachter leisten.

Es gibt einige formale Hinweise, dass Duchamp mit seiner Tür andere Absichten verfolgte. Die in die Scheibe geschnittene Silhouette deutet zwei Personen an, wobei die grössere die kleinere zu dominieren, fast zu erdrücken scheint. Die beiden sind sehr nah aneinander gerückt, wobei es so aussieht, als lege die grössere der kleineren einen Arm um die Schulter und schaue die kleinere Figur an, die den Kopf etwas wegneigt (15). Wenn es sich hier also um ein Liebespaar handelte, dann stand das ungleiche Machtverhältnis ganz eindeutig im Vordergrund, und die Nähe der beiden, die in der Literatur (und vermutlich von Breton selbst) oft als Innigkeit gedeutet worden ist, war bei Duchamp eher eine Betonung dieses Missverhältnisses. Duchamp unterlief damit Bretons romantische Interpretation (ohne ihm offen zu widersprechen) und blieb zugleich näher an der Geschichte Jensens, denn hier unterwarf der Protagonist die geliebte Frau seinen Vorstellungen, liess sie zu einem Kunstobjekt (dem Relief) werden. Polemisch könnte man behaupten, gleiches geschehe in einer Galerie mit Kunst. Sie wird einem Massstab ausserhalb ihrer selbst, dem kommerziellen, unterworfen; sie wird die Gradiva im Sinne Duchamps: eine Ware. So gesehen war diese Tür als Warnung Duchamps an die Besucher zu verstehen, nicht die Sache selbst zu übersehen, nicht die Kunstwerke mit ihrem Warenwert zu verwechseln.


click to enlarge
Works of Marcel Duchamp
Abb. 5
Duchamp,Marcel: Schaufenster für
La Part du Diable von Denis
de Rougemont, 3. Februar 1943, Brentano’s, Fifth Avenue New
York, Photographie. Aus: Arturo Schwarz,
The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp
(3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.), New York
2000, Nr. 489, S. 768.

1943 übernahm der ‘Fenstermacher’ Duchamp in New York einen Auftrag für eine Schaufensterauslage (Abb. 5). Auch diesmal handelte es sich um einen Gefallen für einen Freund. Die von den Surrealisten bewunderte Schrift Der Anteil des Teufels von Denis de Rougemont war 1942 bei Brentano’s aufgelegt worden und sollte nun in einem Schaufenster der Filiale an der Fifth Avenue ausgestellt werden. Da Rougemont selbst keine Idee für die Auslage hatte, wandte er sich an Breton, der vorschlug, Duchamp zu konsultieren. Wie aus dem Tagebuch von Rougemont hervorgeht, riet dieser, “die Decke aus offenen, an den Griffen herabhängenden Regenschirmen zu machen” (16). Auf der Photographie sind die Regenschirme allerdings nicht zu sehen. Duchamp vergrösserte das von seinen Freunden geäusserte Unverständnis dieser Idee dadurch, dass er kryptisch hinzufügte: “Die Frauen werden es verstehen”(17). Die Idee mit den Regenschirmen unter der Decke war Duchamp bereits früher gekommen. Er hatte sie für die Surrealisten-Retrospektive 1938 in Paris verwenden wollen anstelle der Kohlesäcke, die dann tatsächlich zum Einsatz kamen. Regenschirme waren nach dem Bericht von Henri-Pierre Roché angesichts der schwierigen Wirtschaftslage damals nicht aufzutreiben gewesen (18). Duchamp scheint jedoch bereits in Paris aus seiner Idee kein Geheimnis gemacht zu haben, denn Salvador Dalí benutzte im folgenden Jahr Regenschirme in dieser Weise in seinem Pavillon Dream of Venus auf der New Yorker Weltausstellung (19). Hatte Duchamp folglich gemeint, die modebewussten New Yorker Frauen, die 1939 in Scharen zu Dalís Pavillon geströmt waren, um das Werk des surrealistischen Modepapstes zu bewundern, würden sich daran erinnern können? So sie es taten, musste ihnen Duchamp als Plagiator von Dalís Idee erscheinen – eine ironische Verkehrung der tatsächlichen Schuldigkeiten.

Für den Hintergrund des Schaufensters für Rougemonts Buch zeichnete Kurt Seligmann verantwortlich, der neben okkult anmutenden Graffiti auch die Tarotkarte XV abbildete, die ausser dem Bezug auf das Buch auch als Vorbote eines späteren Schaufensters (LazyHardware) gesehen werden kann, das ebenfalls unter der Ägide von Duchamp entstand. Ansonsten befanden sich noch zahlreiche exotische Skulpturen in der Auslage, die zwischen die ausgelegten Bücher gestellt waren. Mag sein, dass Breton die Abb.n in seinem New Yorker Lieblingsgeschäft, bei dem Antiquitätenhändler Julius Carlebach, entliehen hatte(20). Die Auslage zog trotz ihrer Exotik keine grössere Aufmerksamkeit auf sich (21). Keines der vier Schaufenster, an deren Erstellung Duchamp Teil hatte, fand in der Presse Erwähnung, obwohl es zumindest einmal zu einem kleinen Skandal kam.


click to enlarge
Lazy Hardware
Abb. 6
Duchamp, Marcel: Lazy Hardware,
Schaufenster für André Bretons
Arcane 17, 19.-26. April 1945, Gotham Bookmart, E. 57th
St. New York, Photographie (Maya Deren), Philadelphia Museum
of Art, Marcel Duchamp Archive. Aus:
Ausst.-Kat. Joseph Cornell/Marcel Duchamp
in Resonance
. Philadelphia Museum of
Art, Ostfildern 1998, S. 250, n. 148.

Dieser entzündete sich an dem berühmtesten der Schaufenster, an deren Gestaltung Duchamp beteiligt war. Dasselbe Buchgeschäft wie zuvor, Brentano’s an der Fifth Avenue, ermöglichte 1945 eine Auslage für die Buchpräsentation von Bretons Schrift Arkanum 17. Das Geschäft sah sich jedoch aufgrund von (in der Überlieferung nicht spezifizierten) Protesten der Women’s League bereits am ersten Tag der Installation gezwungen, die Auslage wieder zu entfernen, woraufhin sie in den Gotham Bookmart in eine nahe gelegene Querstrasse verlegt werden musste (Abb. 6) (22). Die Auslage, wie sie uns aus Photographien an ihrem zweiten Standort bekannt geworden ist, bestand aus verschiedenen Beiträgen. Duchamp hatte eine kopflose Schaufensterpuppe beigesteuert, die einen Wasserhahn am Bein hatte und in eine knappe Schürze gekleidet war. Auf einem Etikett wurde dies als Lazy Hardware (Träge Eisenwaren) betitelt. Von Duchamp stammte auch eine Flasche, die zuvor schon als Motiv für eine Titelseite der Surrealisten-Zeitschrift View gedient hatte (Abb. 7). Der von Breton und Duchamp hochgeschätzte junge Maler Roberto Matta Echaurren hatte ein surrealistisches Plakat mit dem Schriftzeile “arcane 17” angefertigt (Abb. 8). Matta hatte zudem für Bretons Buch vier Tarotkarten entworfen, die im Schaufenster präsentiert wurden, indem mehrere Exemplare des Buches an den entsprechenden Stellen aufgeschlagen wurden (Abb. 9). Schliesslich wurde das Cover des Buches samt eines Portraits des Autors sowie einer Schreibfeder in einem seesternförmigen Tintenfass zu Füssen des Mannequins gezeigt. Das Schaufenster ist in mindestens vier verschiedenen Aufnahmen festgehalten worden, von Duchamp bei der Arbeit an dem Mannequin gibt es eine (Abb. 10, 11-12) (23).

click to enlarge 
  •  View
    Abb.7
    Duchamp, Marcel: Titelseite
    für View, März 1945.
    Aus: Charles Henri Ford (Hg.),
    View. Parade of the Avant-Garde.
    An Anthology of View Magazine
    (1940-47)
    , New York 1992,
    o.S.
  • Tarotkarte
    Abb.8
    Matta Echaurren, Roberto:
    Tarotkarte 17, 1944, weitere
    Angaben unbekannt. Aus: André
    Breton, Arkanum 17 (franz.
  • 
Schaufensterplakat Arcane 17
    Abb.9
    Matta Echaurren, Roberto:
    Schaufensterplakat Arcane 17,
    1944, im Besitz des Künstlers,
    weitere Angaben unbekannt. Aus:
    André Breton, Arkanum 17
    (franz. Erstveröff. 1994), München
    1993, S. [ 2].
  • Lazy Hardware
    Abb.10
    Duchamp, Marcel: Lazy Hardware,Schaufenster für André Bretons Arcane 17 (mit Spiegelung Bretons), 19.-26.
    April 1945, Gotham Bookmart, E. 57th St. New York, Photographie. Aus: Arturo Schwarz, The Complete Works of
    Marcel Duchamp
    (3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.), New York 2000, S. 781.
  • Lazy Hardware
    Abb.11
    Duchamp, Marcel: Lazy Hardware, Schaufenster für André Bretons Arcane 17 (mit Spiegelung Bretons), 19.-26.
    April 1945, Gotham Bookmart, E. 57th St. New York, Photographie. Aus: Arturo Schwarz, The Complete Works of
    Marcel Duchamp
    (3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.), New York 2000,S. 414.
  • Lazy Hardware
    Abb.12
    Duchamp, Marcel: Lazy Hardware, Schaufenster für André Bretons Arcane 17 (mit Spiegelung Bretons und Duchamps,
    zensierende Schürze), 19.-26. April 1945, Gotham Bookmart, E. 57th St. New York, Photographie. Aus: Ausst.-Kat.
    Marcel Duchamp, Anne d’Harnoncourt und Kynaston McShine (Neuaufl. der Ausg. von 1973), Philadelphia 1989, S. 137.

In kunsthistorischen Schriften, in denen Duchamps Schaufenster-Projekte erwähnt werden, ist zumeist nur von der Auslage für Arkanum 17 die Rede. Das mag zum einen daran liegen, dass bereits sehr früh in der seit 1973 ausufernden Duchamp-Literatur, nämlich schon 1977, ein ausführlicher und gedankenreicher Artikel von Charles Stuckey erschienen ist, der sich mit Duchamps Beitrag zu diesem Schaufenster, der kopflosen Schaufensterpuppe, beschäftigte. Der Artikel ist zudem interessant, weil er das schwierige Verhältnis von Kunsthistorikern zum Medium Schaufenster eindrücklich widerspiegelt. Daher seien hier einige Bemerkungen zur Historiographie dieses Schaufensters erlaubt.


click to enlarge
Lazy Hardware
Abb. 1
Duchamp, Marcel: Lazy Hardware,
Schaufenster für André Bretons
Arcane 17 (Duchamp beim Aufbau),
19.-26. April 1945,
Gotham Bookmart, E. 57th
St. New York, Photographie.
Aus: Arturo Schwarz, The Complete
Works of Marcel Duchamp

(3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.), New York 2000, S. 781.

Stuckey zog kunsthistorische Vergleiche für das Mannequin heran und versuchte, es in Duchamps Oeuvre einzuordnen. Obwohl er mit einer Vielzahl mehr oder weniger plausibler Bezüge aufwarten konnte, fühlte er sich verpflichtet, seinen Ansatz zu rechtfertigen: “Vielleicht ist es widersinnig, ein solch kurzlebiges Werk wie Lazy Hardware zu untersuchen, das nur der Versuch war, das Buch eines Freundes anzupreisen” (24). Seine eigenen Zweifel beseitigte er indes mit dem Hinweis, viele andere Künstler hätten ebenfalls in Schaufenstern gearbeitet. 25 Jahre nach Stuckeys Artikel ist der Verweis auf dieses Schaufenster zu einer Pflichtübung im immer aufwendigeren Parcours der Duchamp-Forschung geworden. In eines seiner Überblickswerke nahm kürzlich Hans Belting eine Photographie der Auslage auf; bei einer Buchvorstellung deutete er sogar an, dieses Schaufenster enthalte alle wichtigen Ideen des Grossen Glases (25). Die feministische Forschung stand nicht an, Lacan und seine Theorie des Spiegelstadiums an einer Photographie abzuhandeln, in der Duchamp und Breton sich in der Scheibe dieser Auslage spiegeln, um daran die Ermahnung auszusprechen, dass erst wir als Betrachter mit unserem “‘begehrenden’ Blick” etwas hervorbringen, was keineswegs Duchamp selbst, sondern nur ein Spiegelbild seiner selbst sei (Abb. 13) (26). Es ist somit ein Paradox in der Forschung entstanden, das darin besteht, dass Kunsthistoriker die Auslage an sich und zugleich die Photographien immer häufiger erwähnen, aber scheinbar immer seltener betrachten. Um dieser Regression zuvorzukommen, soll daher hier noch einmal ein Blick auf die Auslage geworfen werden.

Zunächst müssen jedoch einige der Erkenntnisse Stuckeys zu Lazy Hardware erwähnt werden. Er beschränkte sich ganz auf das Mannequin und liess Mattas Beiträge zum Schaufenster beiseite. Die Kopflosigkeit der Puppe führte er auf eine Anlehnung an Max Ernsts Figur aus dem Collage-Roman La Femme 100 Têtes (1930) zurück. Dieser Bezug scheint weniger aufgrund von formalen Parallelen, als vielmehr für das im Titel enthaltene Wortspiel relevant zu sein. Werner Spies hat immerhin vier Lesarten aufgezeigt (27). Eine Behauptung, die sich schwerlich aufrecht erhalten lässt, die aber dennoch fasziniert, erläuterte Stuckey anhand der Rekonstruktion der ersten Aufstellung des Mannequins. Er behauptete, es habe bei Brentano’s niedriger gestanden, so dass etwaige Spiegelungen der Betrachter nicht im Bereich der Scham der Puppe, sondern auf Kopfhöhe erfolgt seien. Die wechselnden Betrachter hätten diese Frau über den Tag hinweg tatsächlich zu einer Frau mit hundert Köpfen gemacht. Stuckey stellte zudem erstmals den Bezug zu Duchamps oben bereits erwähntem Text zum Schaufenster von 1913 her und beschrieb “die aktive Rolle, die Duchamp dem Fenster zuschreibt” als das Bemerkenswerte daran (28). Hieraus erklärt sich, warum für Stuckey der Bezug zu Ernst so wichtig war. Da jedoch die Puppe lebensgross war, hätte sie bei Brentano’s auf Höhe des Gehwegs stehen müssen, um die vermeintliche Spiegelung zu bewirken. Das war nach Stuckeys eigenen Angaben nicht der Fall, und wird auch durch die Photographie eines Schaufensters des gleichen Jahres für Brentano’s widerlegt, das in etwa der gleichen Höhe wie das vom Gotham Bookmart ansetzt (29). Drei der erhaltenen Photographien spielten freilich mit Spiegelung, indem sie Duchamp und Breton, beziehungsweise Breton allein neben die Schaufensterpuppe projizierten. Wohl dadurch kam Stuckey auf den Gedanken, dass die hell angestrahlte Schürze, die einzige Bekleidung der Puppe war, am zweiten Standort eine Reflektion ausschloss und den direkt davor stehenden Betrachter quasi der Spiegelung seines Kopfes beraubt habe. In Analogie zu Ernsts “Frau ohne Kopf” (Femme Sans Tête) hätte da nun ein Betrachter ohne Kopf gestanden, und dieses Wechselspiel nannte Stuckey mit Duchamp “den Koitus durch eine Glasscheibe hindurch”. Die Frage, warum Duchamp den Betrachter hätte enthaupten wollen, bleibt allerdings ungeklärt.

Für den Wasserhahn, den Duchamp am rechten Oberschenkel des Mannequins angebracht hatte, verwies Stuckey zu Recht auf Duchamps Spruch: “Von unseren Artikeln an träger Eisenware empfehlen wir einen Wasserhahn, der zu tropfen aufhört, wenn man ihm nicht mehr zuhört” (30). Offensichtlich hörte niemand mehr zu, denn dieser Wasserhahn tropfte nicht (31). Stuckey ist einer der ersten, die den Wasserhahn in der Literatur phallisch gedeutet haben (32). Craig Adcock hat diese Lesart zum Anlass genommen, gleich von einer Geschlechtsumwandlung der Puppe in Analogie zu Duchamps Spiel mit seinem weiblichen Alter Ego Rrose Sélavy zu sprechen (33). Duchamp selbst hat den Ausspruch vom tropfenden Wasserhahn 1964 in einer Radierung seines Brunnens untergebracht, und damit indirekt eine Verbindung zwischen dem Schaufenster mit Lazy Hardware und dem mit Badezimmerausstattung der Firma Mutt aufgezeigt (34). “Er ist ein Zubehör, das man jeden Tag in den Schaufenstern von Klempnern sehen kann”, hatte Duchamp von dem Brunnengesagt (35). Mit Lazy Hardware veranschaulichte er diese Behauptung für den Wasserhahn, dehnte sie – nicht ohne Witz – auf das Schaufenster eines Büchergeschäfts aus.

Stuckey versuchte sich verdienstvoller Weise auch daran, Parallelen zwischen Duchamps Mannequin und Bretons Buch Arkanum 17 aufzuzeigen, wobei er einen Aspekt daraus hervorhob: die Polarität von Mann und Frau. Nach Stuckey ersetzte Duchamp diese Vorgabe von Breton bei Lazy Hardware durch die Polarität von Betrachter und Betrachtetem. Diese Auslegung beruht jedoch auf einem etwas wackeligem Verständnis von Bretons Schrift. Eine genaue Lektüre von Bretons Roman soll im folgenden den für Lazy Hardware wichtigen Aspekt des Geschlechterverhältnisses klären. Breton hatte das Buch im August 1944 während eines Urlaubs mit seiner zukünftigen Frau Elisa Caro in Kanada begonnen und kurz nach seiner Rückkehr beendet, so dass bereits zu Weihnachten 1944 eine De-Luxe Ausgabe mit farbigen Reproduktionen von Mattas Tarotkarten erscheinen konnte(36). Der Titel des Buches bezog sich auf die Tarotkarte mit der Nummer 17, die Breton einer literarisch-politisch gefärbten Deutung unterzog. Besondere Bedeutung schrieb er dem grössten auf der Karte abgebildeten Stern zu: “Der hier wiedergefundene Stern ist der des grossen Tagesanbruchs, jener, der danach strebte, die anderen Gestirne im Fenster zu überstrahlen” (37). Mit dem Tagesanbruch waren, so geht aus dem Buch hervor, zwei konkrete Dinge gemeint. Das Ende des Krieges und der Beginn einer neün Liebe für Breton, dessen erste Ehe kurz zuvor zu Bruch gegangen war, der aber neues Glück bei Elisa Caro gefunden hatte. Beides erörterte und vermengte Breton in dem Buch, wo er das Bild des Sterns in diesem Sinn ausführlicher deutete:

Er besteht aus der Einheit dieser beiden Mysterien selbst: der Liebe, die aus dem Verlust ihres Gegenstandes wiederauferstehen muss und die sich erst dadurch zum vollen Bewusstsein ihrer selbst, zu ihrer ganzen Würde erhebt; der Freiheit, die nur um den Preis ihres Entzugs ihrer selbst recht inne zu werden und zu wachsen vermag. (38)

In Analogie zur Liebe, die nach einem Verlust wieder neu entstehen könne, sah Breton hier dem Frieden entgegen, der trotz des Krieges bald greifbar werden würde. Bretons Anliegen mit dem Buch war es, diesen persönlichen Optimismus weiterzugeben und die Gestaltung des Friedens vorauszudenken.

Wie so oft bei Duchamp kann man in den drei von ihm plazierten Gegenständen zahlreiche Anspielungen aufdecken, die freilich weder augenscheinlich noch zwangsläufig sind. Die Schreibfeder kann neben dem offensichtlichen Verweis auf die von Breton in Arkanum 17als Heilmittel besungene Poesie beispielsweise Sinnbild für den von ihm gegen Ende des Buches angeführten “Engel Freiheit” sein, der nach Victor Hugo “geboren [ist] aus einer weissen Feder, die Luzifer bei seinem Sturz verloren hat” (39). Die Flasche war die Originalvorlage für das von Duchamp angefertigte Titelbild des Duchamp-Heftes der Zeitschrift View, das im März 1945 erschien und ebenfalls im Schaufenster ausgestellt war. Das Cover zeigt die von rechts unten nach hinten in die Bildmitte ragende Flasche, aus deren Öffnung scheinbar Rauch aufsteigt in den Sternenhimmel, der den Hintergrund des Blattes ausfüllt. Aus einem Bericht darüber, wie Duchamp diese Collage angefertigt hat, geht hervor, dass das Etikett aus seinem Livret Militaire, seinem Militärausweis, bestand(40). Der Künstler war aus gesundheitlichen Problemen schon nicht in den Ersten Weltkrieg eingezogen worden (41). Eine politische Deutung der Flasche wird noch verstärkt, wenn man sie in Verhältnis zu Bretons Ausspruch (der Duchamp vielleicht auch bekannt war), “die traurige Flasche dieser Zeiten aufschütteln” setzt (42). Der entweichende Rauch würde belegen, dass dies gelungen ist, dass das Ende des Krieges in Reichweite gekommen ist. Bretons Buch bot erste Gedanken für diese Übergangszeit an. Beide Beigaben, die Feder und die Flasche konnten folglich politisch gedeutet werden und hätten damit eines der beiden Themen von Bretons Buch behandelt. Das Tintenfass in Form eines Seesterns kann als Bretons Stern verstanden werden, der für Freiheit und für Liebe stand.

Die Schaufensterpuppe jedoch ist schwerlich politisch zu deuten. Vielmehr wird hier eine Auslegung analog zu Duchamps Tür für Gradiva vorgeschlagen, nämlich als Anspielung Duchamps auf Bretons Ansichten zur Liebe, dem zweiten Thema von Arkanum 17, und spezifischer noch Bretons Verhältnis zu Frauen. Die Schaufensterpuppe wäre folglich eine Verkörperung von Bretons Konzept der Frau, jedoch nicht nur der Art von Frau, die in Bretons Buch eine solch zentrale Rolle spielt, der Kind-Frau, sondern zugleich eines alternativen Typus Frau. Duchamp kommentierte mit dieser Figur Bretons Verhältnis zu Frauen, speziell zu seiner ersten Frau Jacqueline, die sich 1942 von Breton getrennt hatte, um eine Beziehung zu dem Künstler David Hare einzugehen (den Breton zum Herausgeber der surrealistischen Exil-Zeitschrift VVV gemacht hatte). Zugleich kommentierte er Bretons Verhältnis zu Elisa, auf die sich die Liebeserklärungen in Arkanum 17 bezogen, und die seine zweite Frau werden sollte. In seiner umfassenden Breton-Biographie hat Mark Polizzotti auf den grossen charakterlichen Unterschied dieser beiden Frauen hingewiesen. Er beschrieb Jacqueline als eine Frau, die “ihrer eigenen Bestimmung zu folgen” beschlossen hatte und die als Künstlerin erfolgreich werden wollte (43). Zu Bretons Ungemach führte sie im New Yorker Exil ein von ihm sehr unabhängiges – und im Gegensatz zu seinem – ereignisreiches Leben. Dagegen vergleicht Polizzotti Elisa zu Recht mit der Kind-Frau, die Breton in Arkanum 17 verherrlichte, war sie doch “verletzbar und leidenschaftlich, offenkundig ohne die privaten Ambitionen, die Breton bei seinen anderen Frauen nur so schwer akzeptieren konnte” (44). Breton hatte zwar dafür plädiert, dass angesichts des Krieges Frauen eine grössere gesellschaftliche Rolle spielen sollten: “Es wäre an der Zeit, die Ideenwelt der Frau auf Kosten derjenigen des Mannes in den Vordergrund zu stellen, die heute mit ziemlichem Getöse ihren Bankrott erlebt,” heisst es da scheinbar freimütig an einer Stelle (45). Doch wollte Breton die ‘Ideenwelt’ der Frau zugleich auf zwei Stimmen beschränken, “die eine, um liebend das Wort an den Mann zu richten, die andere, um das ganze Vertrauen des Kindes zu gewinnen” (46). Dieses Ideal verkörperte Elisa. Die Beschränkung der Frau, die er damit vornahm (und auch in seiner Begeisterung für die Geschichte Gradiva bezeugt hatte), begriff der Autor selbst nicht als negativ. Duchamp dürfte da anders gedacht haben und dies drückte sich, so hier das Argument, in der Schaufensterpuppe Lazy Hardware aus.

Wenn man unter diesem Aspekt die Schaufensterpuppe in Bezug zu Ernsts Romanfigur setzte, könnte man in ihr sowohl die Frau sehen, die ihren eigenen Kopf hat (Femme S’Entête), als auch die kopflose Frau (Femme Sans Tête). Die Frau mit eigenem Kopf wird in der Puppe symbolisiert durch den Wasserhahn, der eine Anspielung Duchamps auf Jacqueline war. Der Trennung von ihr und Breton ging Streit voraus, der unter anderem von tropfenden Wasserhähnen verursacht wurde. So hatte Breton sich gegenüber einem Freund beschwert: “Kannst Du Dir vorstellen, wie einen das in einem Hotelzimmer oder einer winzigen Wohnung irritieren kann, wenn der andere niemals die Wasserhähne zudreht?”(47). Der Wasserhahn hier ist zu, er tropft nicht mehr, und – mit der Definition von TrägenEisenwaren -: Jacqueline hört Breton auch nicht länger zu, denn sie ist gegangen. Die Schürze dagegen steht für Elisa, die keinen eigenen Kopf hatte, die in der Rolle der ergebenen Gattin und fürsorglichen Stiefmutter voll aufging. Das Exemplar von Bretons Buch, das die Puppe in den Händen hält, bezeichnet Breton als Bezugspunkt für beide Frauen. Breton sind diese Andeutungen des Freundes, wie bereits bei der Gradiva-Tür, jedoch scheinbar nie zu Bewusstsein gelangt, was dafür spricht, wie dezent Duchamp seine Kritik anbrachte, denn Breton war bei beiden Projekten die Person, die sie am ehesten hätte verstehen können.

Ein weiteres bemerkenswertes Element dieses Schaufensters war das Plakat, das Matta eigens dafür angefertigt hatte. Es ist ein merkwürdiger Umstand der Geschichte, dass, obwohl nicht die Puppe, sondern die weibliche Brust in Roberto Mattas Bild der Auslöser für erneuten Ärger mit der Auslage (am zweiten Standort) war, die neuere Forschung eher an der Puppe als an der nackten Brust in Mattas Bild Anstoss genommen hat (48). Das Plakat ist heute nur in einer Schwarz-Weiss Reproduktion zugänglich, dürfte aber in Analogie zu anderen Werken dieser Zeit durchaus mit verschiedenen hellen Farben ausgeführt worden sein. Das Hochformat, das an der linken Seite des Schaufensters des Gotham Bookmart von der Decke abgehängt worden war, zeigt eine für Matta damals typische Strichzeichnung, in die etwa mittig Fahnen mit “arcane 17” und am unteren Ende mit “André Breton” gesetzt sind. Die Bildhälfte oberhalb von “arcane 17” deutet mit vielen kleinen Punkten und einem grösseren zackigen Objekt den Sternenhimmel an, von dem in Bretons Buch die Rede war. Die untere Bildhälfte füllt ein nacktes Liebespaar, das in einem ‘verschlingenden’ Kuss ineinander verflochten ist. Die Köpfe sind insektenhaft auf Öffnungen und Rüssel reduziert. Dass es die Frau ist, die auf dem Rücken liegt, lässt sich allein an ihrer Brust ablesen. An dieser Brust machten am zweiten Standort der Auslage die Sittenwächter der Vice Society in Person eines gewissen John Sumner ihre Kritik fest. Die Besitzerin von Gotham Bookmart, Frances Steloff, auf die diese Anekdote zurückgeht, wies zunächst seine Vorwürfe zurück mit dem Hinweis: “Ich kann dieses Fenster genauso wenig anrühren, wie ich ein Meisterwerk verändern könnte. Es wurde von Breton und Duchamp persönlich hergerichtet” (49). Doch Sumner bestand auf einer Änderung. Steloff berichtete über ihr weiteres Vorgehen:

An diesem Abend kam mir die Idee, die ‘anstössige’ Stelle mit Herrn Sumners Visitenkarte, die er mir zurückgelassen hatte, abzudecken. Mit grossen Buchstaben stand das Wort ‘Censored’ (zensiert) auf einer Karte darunter. Die Menschenmengen wuchsen dadurch noch mehr, und die Auslage verblieb eine volle Woche im Fenster. (50)

Die Photographien zeigen allerdings keine Karte über der Brust, sondern eine Schürze, die jener ähnelt, die Schaufensterpuppe trägt (51). Eine raffinierte Anspielung auf die engstirnige bürgerliche Moral, die Kind-Frau symbolisierte, und in deren Dienst sich die Vice Society gestellt hatte.


click to enlarge
Works of Marcel Duchamp
Abb. 14
Duchamp, Marcel: Schaufenster
für Le Surréalisme et la Peinture
von André Breton, Herbst 1945, Brentano’s
Fifth Avenue New York,Photographie.
Aus: Arturo Schwarz, The Complete Works of
Marcel Duchamp
(3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.),
New York 2000,Nr. 512, S. 782.
1. la chute d’eau / 2. le gaz d’éclairage
Abb. 15
Duchamp,Marcel: Étant Donnés:
1. la chute d’eau /
2. le gaz d’éclairage
(Gegeben Sei: 1. Der Wasserfall /
2. Das Leuchtgas)
, Innenansicht,
1946-66, mixed media assemblage, Philadelphia Museum of Art.
J. Paul Getty Museum
Abb. 16
Cézanne,Paul: L’Eternel
Feminin
, 1880-82, Öl/Lw, 43,2×53,3cm,
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.

Das Schaufenster für Arkanum 17 belegt besonders anschaulich die Vielschichtigkeit der Auslegungsmöglichkeiten, die Duchamp auch in diesen Werken offeriert. Es bietet sowohl persönliche, als auch weltanschauliche Anspielungen. Duchamp äussert sich zum künstlerischen Prozess ebenso wie zur Banalität von Schaufensterauslagen. Die Rollen von Künstler, Betrachter, Kaufmann und Kaufendem werden gleichermassen angesprochen wie der in den beiden Hauptwerken thematisierte Topos der (vermeintlichen) Erotik des Blicks. Duchamp unterzieht all diese Aspekte derselben Befragung. Das Betrachten des Schaufensters wird somit zum Betrachten der eigenen Anschauungen, zur Befragung der eigenen Person.

Ebenfalls 1945 entstand ein weiteres Schaufenster für den Buchladen Brentano’s an der Fifth Avenue (Abb. 14). Das Buch, das es diesmal anzuzeigen galt, war Bretons Der Surrealismus und die Malerei, das gerade bei Brentano’s eine neue Auflage erhalten hatte. Rechts in der Auslage standen auf zwei Stufen jeweils eine Plastik von Enrico Donato und tiefer eine von Duchamp. Beide Paare Fuss-Schuhe gehen auf ein Bildmotiv von Magritte zurück (Das Rote Modell, 1937), das als Titelbild des anzuzeigenden Buches gewählt worden war. Während Donatis “Füsse” Magrittes Motiv ins Dreidimensionale übersetzten, zeigten Duchamps “Füsse” die Unterseite dieser sich verdinglichenden Glieder. Thomas Girst hat Duchamps Fuss-Plastik zu Recht als erotisches oder gar fetischistisches Motivt gedeutet (52). Im Zentrum dieses Fensters hing ein Papier-Schleier, der, in der Mitte fixiert, nach zwei Seiten auseinanderfiel. Unter dem Schleier stand eine abstrakte Plastik der Bildhauerin Isabelle Waldberg. Durch die Künstlerin ist überliefert, dass Duchamp der Erfinder dieser Auslage war (53). Girst ist die wichtige Entdeckung zu verdanken, dass es sich bei der Figur von Waldberg um eine Person handelte, der eine ähnliche Körperhaltung aufwies wie später jener in Étant Donnés(Abb. 15) (54). Vor diesem Ensemble stand ein vorgefertigter Torso aus Maschendraht, wie er vermutlich häufig in professionellen Friseur- oder Oberbekleidungs-Schaufenstern verwendet wurde.

Folgt man Girsts Argument und erkennt in der Figur ein Vorstadium für Etant Donnés, dann fällt auf, dass der Schleier nur dem Schaufenster, nicht der späteren Installation eigen ist. Es ist vor allem das Motiv einer lasziv sich darbietenden Frau unter einem solchen Schleier das nahe legt, verschiedene Werke von Paul Cézanne könnten hier als Anregung gedient haben. Dessen Gemälde L’Eternel Féminin (1880-82) weist besonders markante formale Parallelen zu Duchamps Bildschöpfung auf (Abb. 16) (55). Die Körperhaltung beider Frauen – das angewinkelte rechte Bein und die weggesteckten Arme – ist durchaus vergleichbar. Der Schleier schaffte der Frau in beiden Fällen einen Innenraum. In beiden Darstellungen hatte der fallende Stoff eine trennende Funktion. Er grenzte die Frau vom Umfeld ab und schaffte somit einen Innenraum, der auch in Anspielung auf das weibliche Geschlecht auf die intime Seite der Erotik anspielte. Durch die Abgrenzung betonte er die Frau jedoch auch und transformierte sie zu einem Objekt der allgemeinen Betrachtung. Damit legte Duchamp die öffentliche Seite der Erotik offen. Diese Dichotomie von Intimität/ Öffentlichkeit teilen Schaufenster und Erotik. Doch Duchamp ging weiter und befragte die Zuschauerreaktion. War der Betrachter hier wie bei Cézanne ein tumber lüsterner Voyeur? (56) Oder war er wie der Maschendraht-Torso bei Duchamp potentiell ein Jedermann, der von des Schaufensters Gestaltung oder des Betrachters Phantasie erst mit Identität bekleidet werden musste (der Scheinwerfer im Schaufenster strahlt nicht die Figur unter dem Schleier, sondern den Betrachter-Torso an)? In Duchamps Auslage gab es kein Urteil im Vorhinein. Nicht Darstellung (Kunst), sondern Handlung (Betrachten, Bekleiden, etc.) ist in diesem Sinne wertend zu verstehen, wie es das “q.e.d.” am Ende von Duchamps Text zu Schaufenstern nahegelegt hatte. In dieser Auslage werden die beiden Pole des künstlerischen Prozesses thematisiert, wie Duchamp sie definiert hatte: der Künstler und der Betrachter (57). Letzterer war es, der ein Urteil (verdict) an die Kunst/ Ware herantrug, doch die Kunst/ Ware würde unabhängig von der Qualität dieses Urteils bestehen bleiben.

Somit wurde speziell in diesem Schaufenster die von Duchamp in dem Text von 1913 angesprochene “Frage der Schaufenster”, seine Thematisierung der Moral von erotischer/kaufender Begierde wieder aufgenommen. Gerade in diesem Schaufenster veranschaulichte Duchamp noch einmal die Parallelität von Erotik in der Schaufenster- und in der Kunst-Betrachtung. Nicht das Objekt der Betrachtung bestimmte die Qualität des Erlebnisses, sondern das Subjekt. Wie später in Etant Donnés inszenierte hier Duchamp in bewusst provokanter Weise eine nackte Frau, um den Betrachter mit sich selbst, seinem Voyeurismus und seinem Begehren zu konfrontieren. Mit diesem Prozess zeigte der Künstler, dass die vermeintliche Grenze zwischen Betrachter und Voyeur moralischer nicht künstlerischer Natur war, dass vom Standpunkt der Kunst eine solche Grenze nicht so leicht zu bestimmen war. Und dass, wie bei Cézanne auch, die Eindeutigkeit moralischer Positionen zwischen Betrachter und Betrachtetem eine Illusion ist. So erübrigte es sich, von Schuld überhaupt noch zu sprechen, denn wer war hier Täter, wer Opfer? Bereits Duchamps Zeilen von 1913 hatten beide Rollen in eine Person verlegt.


click to enlarge
Bamberger Department Store
Abb. 17
Duchamp,Marcel: Schaufenster
mit Akt die Treppe Herabsteigend
Nr. 3, 29.1.1960, Bamberger Department
Store, Newark, Photographie, Philadelphia Museum
of Art. Aus: Jennifer Gough-Cooper/
Jacqüs Caumont, Ephemerides
on and about Marcel Duchamp and
Rrose Sélavy. 1887-1968
,London
1993, 29.1.1960.

Ein weiteres Schaufenster von Marcel Duchamp entstand erst 1960 und trotz seiner Suggestivität ist es in der Duchamp-Literatur erstaunlicherweise bisher mit einer Ausnahme unberücksichtigt geblieben (Abb. 17) (58). Diesmal war es nicht wie bei Lazy Hardware der Kopf, der dem Mannequin, oder vielmehr, den fünf Mannequins fehlte, sondern die Arme. In einem Schaufenster für das Warenhaus Bamberger im New Yorker Vorort Newark hatte Duchamp alle fünf unbekleideten, armlosen Mannequins auf Stufen nebeneinander gestellt, so dass es aussah, als stiegen sie hintereinander diese Treppe herab (59). Das Gemälde Akt die Treppe Herabsteigend, auf das dieses Ensemble anspielte, hing gleich neben der Puppe auf der obersten Stufe. Gemälde und Puppen standen in einem Wechselverhältnis, das Duchamp als Variation auf das Thema abstrakte versus figurative Kunst angelegt hatte. Hier aber dominierte nicht eine der beiden Richtungen, vielmehr stellte sich in der Nebeneinanderstellung die grundlegendere Frage nach dem Wesen der Kunst. Wie wir wissen, hatte Duchamp in seinen Ausführungen zum “Creative Act” (1957) dem Betrachter eine gleichwertige Bedeutung neben dem Künstler im künstlerischen Schaffensprozess zugeschrieben (60). Übertragen auf eine Auslage im Schaufenster bedeutet dies, dass möglicherweise ein ähnliches Verhältnis zwischen Käufer und Schaufenstergestalter besteht.

Im Januar 1960 nahm Marcel Duchamp in dieser Auslage für Robert Lebels gerade erschienene Duchamp-Monographie Sur Marcel Duchamp (1959) nochmals auf das Gemälde Bezug, das ihm 1913 bei der Armory Show amerikaweite und lang anhaltende Berühmtheit als dem Maler von Akt die Treppe Herabsteigend (1912) eingebracht hatte. Mit diesem Schaufenster adressierte Duchamp zugleich mehrere Anliegen: Erstens dankte er damit dem Kunsthistoriker und Freund Robert Lebel, der wiederum mit seiner Monographie den Künstler ehrte; zweitens setzte sich Duchamp mit dem Akt, seiner amerikanischen Rezeption und dem daraus entstandenen Mythos auseinander; drittens stellte diese Auslage mit der Ansammlung wichtiger Dokumente von Duchamps öffentlichem Werdegang, demAkt, der Schachspieler-Zeichnung, dem Rotorelief und dem doppeltbelichteten Portrait, eine Art künstlerischen Resümees dar; viertens betrafen alle diese Punkte zugleich auch das Verhältnis zwischen Künstler und Publikum.

Es war angemessen, dass Duchamp auch für Lebels Buch eine Auslage schuf, hatte dieser doch, wie gesagt, die drei Schaufenster aus den 1940er Jahren als eigenständige Werke anerkannt, indem er sie in das Duchamp-Werkverzeichnis aufgenommen hatte (61). Bereits die in den 1940er Jahren entstandenen Schaufenster waren stets durch Freundschaft, nicht durch monetäre Vergütung motiviert gewesen.

Die räumliche Nähe der Puppen zum Gemälde sowie das grosse Schild mit dem Hinweis auf den Titel des Gemäldes warfen die Frage auf, ob nicht auch die Puppen als Kunst anzusehen seien. Zudem beleuchteten Puppen und Gemälde einander gegenseitig und stellten somit einen Bezug zum Konkurrenzkampf abstrakter – figurativer Kunst her. Diese Auslage entblösste diese Konkurrenz als redundant. Die Nebeneinanderstellung hatte aber auch den Vorteil, dass Duchamp den Moralisierungen der Ordnungshüter von Schaufensterauslagen zuvorkam, indem er den dort gezeigten Gegenständen, den unbekleideten Puppen, zumindest im Rahmen des Schaufensters das Prädikat “Kunst” verliehen hatte. Gar nicht so subtil amüsierte sich der Künstler hier, so scheint es, über die oftmals ungelenken Versuche (nicht nur) seiner Kritiker, Grenzen zwischen hi&low und zugleich auch zwischen Kunst und Pornographie festzulegen.

Zahllose Male hatte Duchamp sein Gemälde seit dem Skandal bei der Armory Show 1913 erklären müssen:

mein Ziel war eine statische Darstellung von Bewegung, eine statische Komposition von Verweisen auf verschiedene Positionen, die eine Form in Bewegung einnehmen kann – ohne die Absicht, einen cineastischen Effekt durch Malerei zu erreichen. Die Reduzierung eines Kopfes in Bewegung auf eine einfache Linie erschien mir vertretbar (…) Daher fühlte ich mich gerechtfertigt, eine Figur in Bewegung auf eine Linie anstatt auf ein Skelett zu reduzieren. Reduzieren, reduzieren, reduzieren war mein Gedanke – aber zur gleichen Zeit war mein Ziel eine Wendung nach Innen anstatt zu Äußerlichkeiten. (62)

Im Schaufenster von 1960 drehte er diese Aussage in ihr Gegenteil: Aus den Linien wurden ganze Körper, aus der Reduktion wurde Addition, die Wendung nach innen ersetzte eine Schau der Körper. Und auch der cineastische Effekt der Malerei, den der Künstler zuvor zurückgewiesen hatte, wurde hier geradezu heraufbeschworen durch den glamourösen und zugleich einförmigen Eindruck, den die Puppen trotz Arm- und Haarlosigkeit machten. Der goldfarbene Rahmen, der nicht nur das Gemälde selbst, sondern auch die fünf nackten Damen einrahmte, und am unteren Ende von den Buchauslagen sowie einer Zeichnung, derStudie für das Portrait der Schachspieler (1911), und einem Rotorelief überschnitten wurde, verlieh der Auslage musealen und zeitlosen Charakter (63). Das gleich sechsmal wiederholte doppelbelichtete Portrait Duchamps von Victor Obsatz fügte den Mannequins ein (weiteres) ironisches Moment hinzu: Die Profile der oberen Aufnahmen schauten den herabsteigenden Puppen nämlich entgegen, während die jeweilige Frontalaufnahme den Betrachter verschmitzt anlächelte.

Das Schaufenster für Bamberger belegt, wie unvermindert spielerisch und zugleich ideenreich und raffiniert Duchamp mit dem Medium Schaufenster umging. Die Auslage vermittelte aber auch den Eindruck, dass der Künstler mittels Ironie eine gewisse Distanz zu dem für seinen Werdegang so bedeutenden Werk Akt die Treppe Herabsteigendeingenommen hatte. Für diese Auslage hatte Duchamp aufwendigere und langwierigere Vorbereitungen getroffen als für jene bei Brentano’s und Gotham Bookmart. Er entlieh 1960 eigens die Schachzeichnung sowie den Akt aus dem Philadelphia Museum of Art (64). Mit diesem Schaufenster, in dem das Schachspiel mit dem Akt zusammengeführt wurde, thematisierte und resümierte Duchamp diese beiden Mythen seines Lebens. Das anzuzeigende Werkverzeichnis hatte sein künstlerisches Werk als Thema für diese Auslage vorgegeben. Duchamp nutzte die Gelegenheit, sich selbst noch einmal in den Rollen vorzustellen, in denen die breitere Öffentlichkeit ihn kannte. Wenn das erklärte Ziel für das Gemälde Akt die Treppe herabsteigend “eine Wendung nach Innen anstatt zu Äusserlichkeiten” gewesen war, dann wurden jetzt ostentativ die Äusserlichkeiten vorgeführt, um zu betonen, dass es sich hier um Rollen handelte. Die Mannequinimitation war grösser als das Gemälde, von dem sie inspiriert war, wie auch die skandalträchtige Popularität grösser als die kritische Beachtung des Gemäldes selbst gewesen war. In dem Schaufenster wirkte vor allem die Nacktheit der Puppen skandalös, während diese in dem Gemälde nicht der Stein des Anstosses war, sondern der Malstil, der mit Geometrisierung und Brechung der Darstellung auffiel.

Schliesslich können die Puppen auch parallel zu Henry Adams’ berühmtem Mannequin verstanden werden. Der Historiker und Kulturkritiker hatte seine Autobiographie nach dem Vorbild Rousseaus als einen Lehr-Bericht des Versagens stilisiert (65). Adams wählte die Metapher eines Mannequins, um ein Mass für sein Lebenswerk finden: die Kleider als eine massgeschneiderte Erziehung, die ein Zurechtkommen in der Welt des 20. Jahrhunderts ermöglichen würde. Bei Henry Adams passten die Kleider seiner Erziehung nicht, er beschrieb sein Leben als Scheitern. Bei Duchamp blieben die Mannequins nackt. Sie waren wie der Drahttorso im früheren Schaufenster Projektionsflächen für die Vorstellungen des Betrachters. Diesen Teil des Kunstwerkes überliess Duchamp als ostentative Veranschaulichung seines in “Creative Act” geäusserten Credos dem Betrachter.

Aus dem Vorangegangenen sollte ersichtlich geworden sein, dass Schaufenster Duchamp aus vielerlei Gründen während seines ganzen Lebens interessierten. Im Gegensatz zu vielen seiner Kollegen war er zu keinem Zeitpunkt gezwungen gewesen, Schaufenster für seinen Unterhalt zu gestalten, sondern er hatte diese Projekte aus Freude an der Herausforderung angenommen. Oft nutzte er sie für humorvolle persönliche Anspielungen. Beide Hauptwerke, sowohl das Grosse Glas als auch Etant Donnés sind in der Rezeption zu Recht mit Schaufenstern verglichen worden. Der Künstler war fasziniert von der Überlagerung verschiedener räumlicher Ebenen, die das Schaufenster suggerierte oder auch provozierte. Zudem reizte ihn, wie bei den Ready-Mades auch, die grosse Nähe von Kunst zu Konsumgütern, deren Trennung er oftmals als künstlich entlarvte und in Frage stellte. “Die Frage der Schaufenster” beschränkte sich bei Duchamp folglich nicht nur auf moralische oder persönliche Aspekte, sondern erstreckte sich durchaus auf fundamental künstlerische Zusammenhänge.

*Dieser Artikel geht aus einem Kapitel meiner Dissertation SchaufensterKunst hervor, die im Herbst 2003 im Böhlau Verlag/ Köln erscheint (ISBN 341202903-3, ca. € 34,90). Wertvolle Hinweise verdanke ich Ulrich Rehm, Thomas Girst und Michael Taylor.


Notes

Footnote Return (1) Cf. Robert Lebel, Sur Marcel Duchamp, Paris 1959, Kat.-Nr. 183, 188 und 189.

Footnote Return (2) Die erste ernsthafte und ausführliche Auseinandersetzung mit einem dieser Werke Duchamps seit dem verdienstvollen Artikel von Charles Stuckey (“Duchamp’s Acephalic Symbolism”, in: Art in America, Jan./Feb. 1977, S. 94-99, verdankt sich Thomas Girst (tout-fait.com, Jan 2002, Jg. 2, Nr. 4, Article, Window Display).

Footnote Return (3) Zu dem Geschäft des Konfektionärs Gamelin, cf. Thomas Girst “Diese Objekte obskurer Begierden – Marcel Duchamp und seine Schaufenster”, in: Hollein, Max und Christoph Grunenberg (Hrsg.) Shopping. 100 Jahre Kunst und Konsum (Ausst.-Kat.), Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2002, S. 142-147.

Footnote Return (4) Marcel Duchamp im Interview mit James Sweeney, 1995, in: James Nelson (Hg.), Wisdom:Conversations with the Elder Wise Men of Our Day, New York 1958, S. 89-99, S. 93. Auf Sweeneys Frage: “I imagine you feel that The Chocol ate Grinder heralded something in your work, something of that break you have often told me about?” antwortete Duchamp: “It was really a very important moment in my life. I had to make great decisions then”.

Footnote Return (5) Duchamp zitiert in: Kynaston McShine und Anne d’Harnoncourt, Marcel Duchamp (Reprint des Ausst. Kat. von 1973), 1989, S. 272 [(…) an architectural, dry rendering (…)].

Footnote Return (6) Duchamp zitiert nach Karin von Maur, “Marcel Duchamp ‘Fenêtrier'”, in: Jahrbuch der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen in Baden Württemberg, 18. Jg., 1981, S. 99-104, S. 100: “Statt als Maler angesehen zu werden, würde ich lieber als Fenstermacher (‘Fenêtrier’) gelten wollen”.

Footnote Return (7) Anne d’Harnoncourt und Walter Hopps, Etant Donnés: 1° la chute d’eau, 2° le gaz d’éclairage. Reflections on a New Work by Marcel Duchamp (2. Reprint), Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin, Jg. 64, Nr. 299+300, April-Sept. 1969, Philadelphia 1969, S. 31 (Duchamp’s first window is his greatest: The Large Glass is less a picture than it is a vast window on the constant flux of life around it. Conversely, the images etched and glued onto its surface can be imagined as projections of objects in an admittedly extraordinary shop-window case behind it. Given a shifting environment of passers-by, with their attendant hopes, fears, and desires, the Glasscontinually reconstitutes a brilliant synthesis of the ‘outside world’ and the inside world of the imagination).

Footnote Return (8) Diese Deutung beruht auf Duchamps Vorstellung von der vierten Dimension. Calvin Tomkins, Duchamp. A Biography, 1996, S. 60, hat sie treffend wie folgt zusammengefaßt: Duchamps “line of reasoning was quite simple: since light falling on a three-dimensional object projected a two-dimensional shadow image, he reasoned, why couldn’t our own, three-dimensional world be seen as the projection of another reality in four dimensions”?

Footnote Return (9) Marcel Duchamp, Die Schriften (2 Bde.), Zürich 1981, Bd. 1, S. 69, (54) (‘Schokoladenzerreiber’ bei Stauffer ersetzt zwecks Anpassung an den übrigen Text). Die Streichungen hier wie in den folgenden Zitaten gehen auf Duchamp zurück. – Signifikanterweise sind Titel und Signatur des Großen Glases auf der Rückseite der Schokoladenmühle angebracht worden, was sie nach Duchamp zu Etiketten werden läßt. – Randall K. Van Schepen, “Duchamp as Pervert”, in: Art Criticism, 7. Jg., H. 2, 1992, S. 53-75, S. 65, beläßt es nicht bei der Deutung der Rotation als Onanie, vielmehr geht seine Interpretation (der die These zugrunde liegt, Duchamp sei insofern pervers, als er im anal-sadistischen Entwicklungsstadium seiner Sexualität steckengeblieben sei) dahin, das Produkt des Reibens sei “closer to feces than to sperm”.

Footnote Return (10) Duchamp, 1981, cf. Anm. 9, Bd. 1, S. 125 (117). Der deutsche Wortlaut folgt Stauffer, Satz und Interpunktion sind jedoch üblichen Regeln angeglichen.

Footnote Return (11) Maur, cf. Anm. 6, ist bemüht, ihre Interpretation auf eine platonische Ebene zu verschieben. Herbert Molderings, (Marcel Duchamp: Parawissenschaft, das Ephemere und die Skepsis, Frankfurt 1983), begreift den Text wie auch die Fenstermotivik bei Duchamp als Meditationen des Künstlers zum Verhältnis Voyeur-Exhibition und im nächsten Schritt als “Paradigm[en] für die gesamte Situation zeitgenössischer Kultur” (S. 71). Jerrold E. Seigel (The Private Worlds of Marcel Duchamp: Desire and Liberation, and the Self in Modern Culture, Berkeley/ London 1995) argumentiert, Duchamp “used the image of the shop window to meditate on the relations of desire and satisfaction that recurred in his work” (Kap. 6). Eine Interpretation, die beides verbindet, bietet John Golding (Marcel Duchamp. The Bride Stripped Bare by her Bachelors, Even, New York 1972): “Like Mallarmé, Duchamp appears to be obsessed with the idea of the work of art as a symbol or substitute for the object of love or desire which cannot be touched, for to do so would break the spell” (S. 53). – Eine Ausnahme von diesen auf Erotik konzentrierten Ansätzen ist der Aufsatz von Shelley Rice (“‘The Qüstion of Shop Windows…'”, in: Lynn Gumpert (Hg.), Art of the Everyday: The Quotidian in Postwar French Culture, Grey Art Gallery and Study Center (New York), etc.New York/ London 1997/98), die – leider ohne weitere Begründung oder Erläuterung – Duchamps Text mit den Trödelschaufenstern in Verbindung bringt, die Atget vorzugsweise photographierte, die Aragon in Pariser Landleben und Benjamin in demPassagenwerk beschrieben hatte.

Footnote Return (12) Molderings, cf. Anm. 11, S. 79. Cf. auch Kap. VI und VII, passim.

Footnote Return (13) Antje von Graevenitz, “Duchamps Tür ‘Gradiva’. Eine literarische Figur und ihr Surrealistenkreis”, in: Klaus Beekman und Antje von Graevenitz (Hg.), Marcel Duchamp (Reihe Avantgarde, Heft 2), Amsterdam 1989, S. 63-93, bes. S. 69, wo es heißt: “(…) dass Duchamp Hanolts [sic] Wandlung auf den Betrachter transponieren will. Die äußere, tatsächliche Passage würde dann mit einer inneren verbunden, einem ‘rite de passage’ (…)”. Graevenitz’ Ansatz ist leider nicht zuletzt aufgrund sprachlicher Ungenauigkeit anfechtbar.

Footnote Return (14) Zitiert nach Arturo Schwarz, The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp (3. überarb. und erw. Aufl.), New York 2000, S. 742 [(…) she who sees ‘the beauty of tomorrow – still hidden from most people’]. Ähnlich Breton in der Ankündigung, die Galerie solle “die Schönheiten von morgen [präsentieren], die vor den meisten noch verborgen sind und auf die wir dann und wann durch die Berührung eines Objektes, durch das Vorübergehen eines Gemäldes, durch eine Wendung in einem Buch einen Blick erhaschen” (zitiert bei Mark Polizzotti, Revolution des Geistes. Das Leben André Bretons (engl. Erstveröff. 1995), München/ Wien 1996, S. 638).

Footnote Return (15) Die kräftige Statur der größeren Person könnte, obwohl es damals niemand aussprach, Breton selbst gemeint haben, der eindrucksvoll groß gewesen ist. Vielleicht kommentierte Duchamp hier also Bretons eigenes Verhältnis zur Liebe, zu Frauen. Breton sah in diesen gern die Muse und tolerierte Selbstständigkeit kaum (zu Bretons Verhältnis zu den von ihm geliebten Frauen ist aufschlußreich Polizzotti, cf. Anm. 14, Kap. 17).

Footnote Return (16) Denis de Rougemont zitiert bei Schwarz, cf. Anm. 14, S. 768, Nr. 489 [(…) a ceiling made of open umbrellas hanging by their handles]. Schwarz zitiert ausführlich aus Rougemonts Tagebuch (Journal d’une époqü,1926-1946, Paris 1968, S. 526f.) und enthält sich selbst überraschenderweise einer Deutung des Schaufensters im Sinn seiner alchemistischen oder psychoanalytischen Theorien.

Footnote Return (17) Cf. Rougemont in Schwarz, cf. Anm. 14, S. 768, Nr. 489 [(…) all the women will understand].

Footnote Return (18) Henri-Pierre Roché, “Erinnerungen an Marcel Duchamp”, in: Lebel, cf. Anm. 1, S. 176.

Footnote Return (19) Cf. Salvador Dalí, Das Geheime Leben des Salvador Dalí (engl. Erstveröff. 1942), München 1984, S. 466, wo Dalí stolz von den “von der Pavillondecke hängende[n] umgestülpte[n] Regenschirme[n]” berichtete.

Footnote Return (20) Cf. Polizzotti, cf. Anm. 14, S. 728f., der berichtet, dass Breton diesen Laden häufig auch in Begleitung von Max Ernst und Claude Lévi-Strauss aufsuchte.

Footnote Return (21) Die Ausnahme war ein Schwarzer, der wie Rougemont berichtete, mit wilden Sprüngen und Rufen auf eine Figur im Schaufenster reagierte (cf. Schwarz, cf. Anm. 14, S. 768, Nr. 489). Donati behauptet, in seinen an verschiedenen Punkten anfechtbaren Erinnerungen, es sei die Heilsarmee (!) gewesen, die sich bei dem Buchladen beschwert habe, was wenig plausibel klingt (cf. Kim Whinna: “A Friend Fondly Remembered: Enrico Donati on Marcel Duchamp”, in: tout-fait.com, Dezember 2000, Jg. 1, Nr. 3, Interviews).

Footnote Return (22) Lebel, cf. Anm. 1, Kat. Nr. 189. Hier die bisher einzige Begründung für die erzwungene Verlegung. Stuckey (cf. Anm. 2), S. 95 und Anm. 13, behauptet, ohne eine andere Quelle als Lebel zu nennen, die Brust habe auch hier den Anstoß erregt. Quellengeschichtlich ist der Grund des Anstoßes am ersten Standort der Auslage ansonsten nicht belegt.

Footnote Return (23) Stuckey (cf. Anm. 2), S. 99, Anm. 18, gibt eine Liste der Photographien sowie Stellen, an denen sie bis dahin veröffentlich worden waren. Stuckey erwähnt jedoch nicht, dass es von der Photographie, in der Breton sich spiegelt, mindestens zwei Versionen gibt.

Footnote Return (24) Stuckey, cf. Anm. 2, S. 96 (Perhaps it is foolish to examine such a short-lived work as Lazy Hardware, an attempt merely to promote a friend’s book).

Footnote Return (25) Hans Belting: Das Unsichtbare Meisterwerk. Die Modernen Mythen der Kunst, München 1998, S. 373, Abb. 144. Belting stellte das Kapitel zu Duchamp anläßlich der Tagung “Marcel Duchamp. Das Große Glas. Herausforderung für Kunstgeschichte und Philosophische Ästhetik”, Bonn 8.-10.10.1998, vor. Die These, das Schaufenster mit Lazy Hardware fasse alle Thesen des Großen Glases zusammen, wurde dort mündlich geäußert und ist in Beltings Buch selbst nicht zu finden.

Footnote Return (26) Amelia Jones, Postmodernism and the En-Gendering of Marcel Duchamp, New York 1994, S. 84, wo Lacans These wie folgt auf die Photographie bezogen wird: “The gaze makes the subject ‘exist’ by posing her or him in relation to an other (…) This photo-graph of Duchamp’s window marks not Duchamp’s disseminating authorship but the fact that he exists only through our desiring ‘gazes’ as a reflection, as photo-graphed”.

Footnote Return (27) Werner Spies, Max Ernst – Collagen. Inventar und Widerspruch, Kunsthalle Tübingen, Kunstmuseum Bern, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen (Düsseldorf), Köln 1988/89, S. 186. 1. La femme cent têtes; 2. La femme sans tête; 3. La femme s’entête; 4. Femme sang tète.

Footnote Return (28) Stuckey, cf. Anm. 2, S. 96 [The active role Duchamp gives to the window (…)].

Footnote Return (29) Stuckey (cf. Anm. 2) beruft sich auf die Information von Brentano’s, die immerhin von 12 bis 18 Zoll Höhe sprachen. Damit wäre eine Spiegelung des Betrachterkopfes, so es überhaupt eine gab (Stuckey setzt voraus, dass die Lichtverhältnisse in beiden Geschäften dieselben waren, was äußerst unwahrscheinlich ist), günstigstenfalls in Brusthöhe des Mannequins möglich gewesen.

Footnote Return (30) Deutsche Fassung nach Molderings, cf. Anm. 11, S. 71. Duchamp zitiert in: André Breton, Anthologie de l’Humour Noir, Paris 1940, S. 233. – Molderings, cf. Anm. 11, S. 71, hebt Duchamps Betonung des “reziproke[n] Verhältnis[esses] der Wahrnehmung” hervor.

Footnote Return (31) Donati behauptet fälschlicherweise, “piss flowed through a faucet attachted to her upper thigh”, was von keinem anderen Zeitzeugen oder den Photographien belegt wird (Enrico Donati im Interview mit Kim Whinna, tout-fait, cf. Anm. 21).

Footnote Return (32) Stuckeys Spekulationen zum Ursprung des Wasserhahns und der Schürze gehören zu den Schwachstellen seines Aufsatzes (cf. Stuckey, cf. Anm. 2, S. 96f.). Daher wird hier nicht näher darauf eingegangen.

Footnote Return (33) Craig Adcock, “Duchamp’s Eroticism: A Mathematical Analysis”, in: Rudolf E. Künzli und Francis M. Naumann (Hg.), Marcel Duchamp: Artist of the Century, Cambridge/ London 1989, S. 149-167, S. 163, wo es heißt: “The faucet on the mannequin is an obvious phallic symbol and transforms the female figure into a male (…)”. Schwarz, cf. Anm. 14, S. 227, kommt ganz ähnlich zu dem Schluß, dass der Wasserhahn die Puppe zum Hermaphroditen werden läßt. Zudem interpretiert er die Kopflosigkeit als Kastration. – Enrico Donati will sich erinnern, dass bei Brentano’s “piss flowed through a faucet”, was recht unwahrscheinlich ist (cf. Anm. 21).

Footnote Return (34) Abgebildet bei Adcock, cf. Anm. 33, S. 164. Bei Schwarz, cf. Anm. 14, S. 840, Nr. 606.

Footnote Return (35) [Marcel Duchamp], “The Richard Mutt Case”, in: The Blind Man, abgedruckt in: Tomkins, cf. Anm. 8, S. 185 (It is a fixture that you see every day in plumbers’ show windows).

Footnote Return (36) Cf. Polizzotti, cf. Anm. 14, S. 760.

Footnote Return (37) André Breton, Arkanum 17 (franz. Erstveröff. 1944), München 1993, S. 110. Ausführliche Deutungen der Karte auf den S. 70, 84 und 110ff. Ein informativer Kommentar bei Bernd Mattheus, “Ein neün Mythos”, in: Ibid., S. 149-191, bes. S. 151-157.

Footnote Return (38) Ibid., S. 112.

Footnote Return (39) Ibid., S. 112.

Footnote Return (40) Cf. Peter Lindamood, “I Cover the Cover”, in: View, März 1945, zitiert nach: Charles Henri Ford, View. Parade of the Avant-Garde. An Anthology of View Magazine (1940-1947), New York 1992, S. 119f.

Footnote Return (41) Cf. Tomkins, cf. Anm. 14, S. 140.

Footnote Return (42) Breton in einem Brief an seinen Freund Péret, zitiert in: Polizzotti, cf. Anm. 14, S. 733. Breton hatte etwas blauäugig die Hoffnung geäußert, dass sein 1942 erschienenes drittes surrealistisches Manifest diese Wirkung erzielen würde.

Footnote Return (43) Polizzotti, cf. Anm. 14, S. 757.

Footnote Return (44) Ibid., S. 758. Polizzotti beschreibt auch, dass Elisas Phlegma von manchen Freunde als unerträglich empfunden wurde.

Footnote Return (45) Breton, cf. Anm. 37, S. 60.

Footnote Return (46) Ibid., S. 59. Wenn Bernd Mattheus (“Ein neuer Mythos?”, in: Breton, cf. Anm. 37, S. 149-191) in seinem Aufsatz daher zu dem Schluß kommt, “André Bretons ‘Feminismus’ dürfte nicht nach dem Geschmack der Feministinnen sein” (S. 169), so ist das eine starke Untertreibung. Breton, so scharfsinnig er auch in anderen Aspekten war, erlag genau in diesem Punkt dem”Undurchsichtigen”, das er im selben Buch als den “große[n] Feind des Menschen” (ibid., S. 36) bezeichnet hatte. Gemeint waren Vorurteile, die den Blick auf die Menschen oder Dinge dahinter verstellten.

Footnote Return (47) Polizzotti, cf. Anm. 14, S. 738, zitiert Thirion, dem Breton sein Leid klagte.

Footnote Return (48) Amelia Jones spricht von der Puppe als “blatantly abused” (Jones, cf. Anm. 26, S. 84).

Footnote Return (49) Frances Steloff, “In Touch with Genius”, in: Journal of Modern Literature, 4. Jg., April 1975, o.S., S. 771 (I can no more disturb that window than I could alter a masterpiece. It was arranged by Breton and Duchamp themselves). Der Bericht in ähnlicher Fassung auch in: W.G. Rogers, Wise Men Fisch Here. The Story of Frances Steloff and the Gotham Book Mart, New York 1965, S. 155f.

Footnote Return (50) Steloff, cf. Anm. 49, S. 770 (That evening I conceived the idea of covering the ‘objectionable’ spot with Mr. Sumner’s personal card which he had left with me, and in large letters on a card beneath it the single word, ‘CENSORED.’ This drew larger crowds than before, and the display remained in the window a full week).

Footnote Return (51) Merkwürdigerweise hat sich bisher kein Kunsthistoriker die Mühe gemacht, die Anekdote mit der Photographie zu vergleichen und diesen Unterschied zu bemerken (cf. Abb. in: McShine/D’Harnoncourt, cf. Anm. 5, S. 137).

Footnote Return (52) Thomas Girst: “Marcel Duchamp’s Window Display for Breton’s Le Surréalisme et la Peinture (1945)”, tout-fait, cf. Anm. 2.

Footnote Return (53) Cf. einen Brief von ihr an ihren Mann Patrick Waldberg, datiert 10.11.1945 (zitiert bei Thomas Girst, tout-fait cf. Anm. 2).

Footnote Return (54) Nur bei Donati findet man den Hinweis, die Figur sei ein Ready-Made gewesen. Donati schreibt ihre Beschaffung jedoch nicht Waldberg, sondern Duchamp selbst zu (so Donati gegenüber Kim Whinna, tout-fait, cf. Anm. 21).

Footnote Return (55) Das Schleiermotiv findet sich bei Cézanne, jedoch nicht mit solch großer formaler Übereinstimmung zu Duchamps Schaufenster, auch bei Versionen der Badende, cf. Badende vor einem Zelt, Staatsgalerie Stuttgart. Überlegenswert ist auch, ob nicht der Torso aus Maschendraht, besonders aufgrund der duttartigen Ausformung auf dem Kopf, gewisse formale Parallelen mit Portraits der Madame Cézanne teilt.

Footnote Return (56) Benjamin Harvey (“Cézanne and Zola: ” Reassessment of L’Eternel Fémin“, in: Burlington Magazine, Jg. 140, Mai 1998, S. 312-318) unterstreicht die negative Konnotation von Cézannes Zuschaürn in L’Eternel Féminin, wenn er den Bezug dieses Gemäldes zu Emile Zolas Roman Nana herstellt. Harvey identifiziert die einzelnen Personen im Gemälde mit bestimmten Charakteren des Romans, die alle, gleich welchen sozialen Standes, der Prostituierten verfallen sind. Zola befindet sich im Vergleich zu Duchamp offensichtlich am anderen Ende des Bemühens, das Verhalten des Betrachters der Erotik moralisch zu werten.

Footnote Return (57) Cf. Marcel Duchamp, “The Creative Act”, Vortrag Houston 1957, abgedruckt z.B. bei Tomkins, cf. Anm. 14, S. 509f.

Footnote Return (58) Hinweis und Abbildung finden sich bei Jennifer Gough-Cooper und Jacques Caumont, Ephemerides on and about Marcel Duchamp and Rrose Sélavy. 1887-1968, London 1993, 29.1.1960.

Footnote Return (59) Das Warenhaus Bamberger konnte auf eine lange Geschichte der Kunstförderung zurückblicken, denn nicht der Gründer hatte das Kapitel für den Bau des örtlichen Museums finanziert und lange eine enge Freundschaft mit John Cotton Dana, dem Museumsleiter und Pionier der amerikanischen Museumswissenschaft, gepflegt.

Footnote Return (60) Cf. Anm. 57.

Footnote Return (61) Cf. Lebel, cf. Anm. 1, Kat.-Nr. 183, 188 und 189.

Footnote Return (62) Duchamp in einem Interview mit James Johnson Sweeney, 1946, zitiert bei Tomkins, cf. Anm. 14, S. 79 [My aim was a static representation of movement, a static composition of indications of various positions taken by a form in movement – with no attempt to give cinema effects through painting. The reduction of the head in movement to a bare line seemed to me defensible (…) Therefore I felt justified in reducing a figure in movement to a line rather than to a skeleton. Reduce, reduce, reduce was my thought – but at the same time my aim was turning inward, rather than toward externals].

Footnote Return (63) Die Zeichnung wird bei Schwarz, cf. Anm. 14, unter der Kat.-Nr. 223 geführt. Das Archiv des Philadelphia Museum of Art belegt, dass Duchamp den Akt die Treppe Herabsteigend Nr. 3 (1916) für dieses Schaufenster ausgeliehen hat. Bei Gough-Cooper/ Caumont, cf. Anm. 58, der Hinweis, dass Duchamp die Zeichnung der Schachspieler ebenfalls dort ausgeliehen hatte.

Footnote Return (64) Cf. Cooper/ Caumont, Anm. 58, 29.1.1960.

Footnote Return (65) Cf. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams, in: ders., Novels, Mont Saint Michel, the education, The Library of America, Bd. 14, S. 716-1192, bes. S. 721f. – Der Vergleich Duchamp – Adams liegt auch aus verschiedenen anderen Gründen (etwa dem gemeinsamen Interesse an Maschinen- und Jungfrauenmetaphorik) nahe. Erste durchaus erweiterbare Überlegungen hat Dikran Tashjian geleistet: “Henry Adams and Marcel Duchamp: Liminal Views of the Dynamo and the Virgin”, in: The Arts, vol. 51, May 1977, S. 102-107.

Figs. 2-7, 10-12 ©2003 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

(Ab)Using Marcel Duchamp: The Concept of the Readymade in Post-War and Contemporary American Art

The following article is published in two parts within the exhibition catalogue for “Aftershock: The Legacy of the Readymade in Post-War and Contemporary American Art,” Dickinson Roundell, Inc., New York, May – June 2003”*

In a 1961 interview with Katherine Kuh, Marcel Duchamp, when asked about his readymades, let it be known that the concept behind those objects might be “the most important single idea to come out of my work.” (1) In June 1967, the self-proclaimed “an-artist”(2) – anticipating his final departure a mere sixteen months hence (“Quite simply, I am waiting for death”) – elaborated on his concept of the readymade: “Ultimately, it should not be looked at… It’s not the visual aspect of the Readymade that matters, it’s simply the fact that it exists.… Visuality is no longer a question: the Readymade is no longer visible, so to speak. It is completely gray matter. It is no longer retinal.” When pressed by his interviewer about the paradox of the readymades having “ended up being ‘consumed’ in museums and exhibitions, and sold as art objects” (particularly in light of the editions produced by the Galleria Schwarz in Milan in 1964), Duchamp replied:

“There is an absolute contradiction, but that is what is enjoyable, isn’t it? Bringing in the idea of contradiction, the notion of contradiction, which is something that has never really been used, you see? And all the more since this use doesn’t go very far. If you make an edition of eight Readymades, like a sculpture, like a Bourdelle or you name it, that is not overdoing it. There is something called “multiples,” that go up to hundred and fifty, two hundred copies. Now there I do object because that’s getting really too vulgar in a useless way, with things that could be interesting if they were seen by fewer people. There are too many people in this world looking. We have to reduce the number of people looking! But that’s another matter.” (3)

To “reduce the number of people looking” echoes an early note by Marcel Duchamp, “Limit the no. of rdymades yearly (?).” (4) This comment, first published in the Green Box of 1934(Fig. 1), was most likely written between 1911 and 1915, during the period of the first readymades, such as the Bicycle Wheel (1913) (Fig. 2) and the Bottle Dryer (1914) (Fig. 3).(5) As he was never keen on showing them publicly, early on they may have functioned as works of private contemplation (not unlike Descartes’ famous piece of wax or William of Occam’s razor), responses, perhaps, to his note of 1913: “Can one make works which are not works of ‘art’?” (6) Accordingly, with the exception of one single New York exhibition in 1916, the readymades were unknown outside his small circle of friends and family until the 1940s. We should bear in mind that even the urinal entitled Fountain (Fig. 4) –– submitted not under Duchamp’s name, but under the pseudonym “R. Mutt” –– was rejected for display at the first exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists in 1917. Throughout his life Duchamp often declined to participate in exhibitions, especially when his readymades were involved. The Bicycle Wheel, for example, was not shown until 1951, and even then as a replica of the lost original. Duchamp is thus to be believed when he says that the readymades “were a very personal experiment that I had never intended to show to the public.” (7)
click images to enlarge

  • Footnote Return
    Figure. 1
    Marcel Duchamp, The Bride Stripped
    Bare by Her Bachelors, Even
    (aka
    the Green Box), 1934
  • Footnote Return
    Figure.2
    Marcel Duchamp, Bicycle Wheel, 1913
  • Footnote Return
    Figure. 3
    Marcel Duchamp, Bottle Dryer, 1914
  • Footnote Return
    Figure. 4
    Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917

click to enlarge
Footnote Return
Figure 5
Marcel Duchamp, Nude
Descending a Staircase
, 1912

As for their actual number, Duchamp once spoke of thirty to thirty-five, though today only about a third of them are known. (8) Many objects qualifying as readymades –– mentioned in his notes and in early accounts by Charles Sheeler, William Carlos Williams, and Edgar Varèse –– were never realized or are lost without a trace. In any case, their limited number, and the fact that at least a few of them are unaccounted for, strongly suggest that they were indeed the “personal experiment” that the an-artist described. Duchamp sought from the beginning to assure that his choice of objects would be limited in order to avoid redundancy, an inevitable consequence if a larger number of original readymades had been produced. In the 1930s Duchamp declined an offer from the Knoedler Gallery in New York, whose director offered him a substantial sum if he would continue to produce the works for which he was most famous (such as the Nude Descending a Staircase of 1912) (Fig. 5). “It would force me to repeat myself. I will not even envisage this possibility. I value my independence too much.” (9) Despite the temptation, Duchamp kept the readymades out of the fray and, accordingly, they remained virtually unknown.

Duchamp’s refusal to have the readymades treated as works of art led him to claim that “for a period of thirty years nobody talked about them and neither did I.” (10) His often-pronounced aesthetic indifference towards these objects also excluded the possibility of their appearance in large numbers, as that would have allowed for taste to infiltrate his “experiment.” In later years, to maintain this indifference despite their newly acquired fame, Duchamp –– always worried about the unavoidable aesthetics of patina –– thought of swapping them for newer mass-produced objects, replacing, for example, the Bottle Dryerwith a plastic bucket. (11)

click to enlarge
Footnote Return
Figure 6
Marcel Duchamp,Boîte-en-Valise,
(open; edition started in 1941)

Outside of his notes in the Green Box, his private correspondence, and the miniatures and photographic reproductions in the Boîte-en-valise (which premiered in 1941) (Fig. 6), (12) Duchamp did not publicly mention the readymades until 1945. (13) In fact, the sole definition of the readymade published under Duchamp’s name, in 1938 –– “an ordinary object elevated to the dignity of a work of art by the mere choice of an artist” –– turns out not to have written by Duchamp but by André Breton. (14)

All of the above can only hint at the intricacies of Duchamp’s early concept of the readymade and the many misreadings that followed. From the immediate post-war period until today, Duchamp’s readymades have been all too often taken as carte blanche for “anything goes,” mere nihilistic or iconoclastic gestures based on the belief that, generated by the choice of the artist, it is only the changing of the context (i.e. a urinal at a plumbing-fixture store vs. Fountain at a gallery) through which an ordinary object is transformed into a work of art. (15) Misreading Duchamp of course, is what the ambivalent an-artist himself must have anticipated and, to a certain extent, encouraged, as Dieter Daniels observed:

Whenever other artists embrace the principle of the Readymade, the idea becomes completely detached from the historical objects and begins a life of its own. In so doing, it illustrates in the best way possible Duchamp’s dictum that it is the viewer who makes the pictures. The continued artistic influence of the Readymade may therefore be understood only as a permanent redefinition of its meaning. (16)

Duchamp’s continuing fame, and his influence on a younger generation of artists, were unexpected: it took some time before it was established that “this whole bloody, revolutionary, contradictory century has basically been a big Duchampian-Beckettian burlesque.” (17) His own attitude towards his heirs seemed to be, at best, one of aloofness (of the same sort he had earlier professed towards Dada and Surrealism), and, at worst, frustration, as was articulated to the Dadaist Hans Richter:

This Neo-Dada, which they call New Realism, Pop Art, Assemblage, etc., is an easy way out, and lives on what Dada did. When I discovered the ready-mades I sought to discourage aesthetics. In Neo-Dada they have taken my readymades and found aesthetic beauty in them, I threw the bottle-rack and the urinal into their faces as a challenge and now they admire them for their aesthetic beauty. (18)

There is a problem with this infamous quote, however. Hans Richter asserted that it came straight from a letter written to him by Duchamp in 1961. Only years later did he admit that those words were not Duchamp’s. Richter had sent Duchamp this paragraph for comment, writing: “You threw the bottle rack and the urinal into their face…,” etc. Duchamp simply scrawled: “Ok, ça va très bien” into the margins. (19)

In fact, the an-artist’s overall assessment of the new movements spreading all around him (and to which, to a certain degree, he owed his enormous renaissance) was, though disengaged, much more sympathetic than Richter’s misleading quote would suggest. In 1964, Duchamp, though unmoved by Pop artists’ sense of humor and choice of material, made the following favorable comments:

Pop Art is a return to “conceptual” painting, virtually abandoned, except by the Surrealists, since Courbet, in favor of retinal painting… If you take a Campbell soup can and repeat it 50 times, you are not interested in the retinal image. What interests you is the concept that wants to put 50 Campbell soup cans on a canvas. (20)

From the 1950s on, Duchamp’s influence on the American art scene has grown precipitously. Beginning in 1942 he lived permanently in New York, and his presence was undoubtedly a factor in the numerous exhibitions that were held in this country in succeeding years. (21) In 1952 Life magazine honored his continuing presence as “Dada’s Daddy” in a ten-page photo spread, (22) and by the mid-50s some of his readymades were permanently installed in American museums. Robert Motherwell made a significant contribution toward a Duchamp renaissance with the publication of the anthology The Dada Painters and Poets (1951), in which he characterized the Bottle Rack as at once a “sculpture” and an “anti-art and consequently dada gesture,” concluding, “it is evident, thirty-five years later, that the bottle rack he chose has a more beautiful form than almost anything made, in 1914, as sculpture.” (23) The game was on, and it certainly didn’t please everyone, least of all the Abstract Expressionists.

In 1957, Barnett Newman voiced his displeasure with the Whitney Museum of American Art, particularly with Robert Motherwell’s contribution to a catalogue for the memorial exhibition of Bradley Walker Tomlin. In a letter to John I. H. Baur, the Whitney’s director, Newman accused Motherwell of “smear and slander,” stating that he wanted to “make clear that if Motherwell wishes to make Marcel Duchamp a father, Duchamp is his father and not mine nor that of any American painter that I respect.” (24) Four years earlier, in a similar tirade against the Museum of Modern Art, he had insinuated that Duchamp’s works in that institution merely added to its “popularizing role of entertainment,” and asserted “that the American public… seeks more from art than just gadgets.” (25) In 1952, he confirmed that the “gadgets” of his scorn were indeed the readymades: “Marcel Duchamp tried to destroy art by pointing to the fountain, and we now have museums that show screwdrivers and automobiles and paintings. [The museums] have accepted this aesthetic position that there’s no way of knowing what is what.”(26)

This was precisely the view of Clement Greenberg, the preeminent art critic of America’s post-war era. Greenberg attacked the tendency to produce art without the guidance of aesthetic judgment, a factor many artists wanted to do away with “in the hope, periodically renewed since Marcel Duchamp first acted on it fifty-odd years ago, that by dint of evading the reach of taste while yet remaining in the context of art, certain kinds of contrivances will achieve unique existence and value. So far, this hope has proved illusory.” (27) With the advent of “Assemblage, Pop, Environment, Op, Kinetic, Erotic, and all the other varieties of Novelty Art” (28) –– all movements, that is, which were more or less indebted to Duchamp – Greenberg bemoaned not only the passing of Abstract Expressionism but of “authentic art values.” (29) These movements were fulfillments of “Duchamp’s dream of going ‘beyond’ the issue of artistic quality.” the “real failure of Pop art,” on top of its “easiness,” was its “vulnerability to qualitative comparisons,” something Duchamp had supposedly initiated in his “‘transcending’ the difference between good and bad in general.” (30) It follows that at the heart of this confusion are the readymades in their three-dimensionality, a spatial “coordinate that art has to share with non-art.” (31) That Greenberg saw the readymade as belonging to the history of painting rather than to that of sculpture clearly evolved from these observations. (32)

On the other end of the spectrum, it was Duchamp himself who spoke out vividly against the movement heralded most by Greenberg:

The recent examples of Abstract Expressionism clearly show the ultimate in the retinal approach begun by Impressionism. By “retinal” I mean that the aesthetic pleasure depends almost entirely on the impression on the retina, without appealing to any auxiliary interpretation… The young artist of tomorrow will refuse to base his work on a philosophy as over-simplified as that of the “representative or non-representative” dilemma. (33)

In the field of art theory, similar opposing voices made themselves heard. To give but one example: early on, New York’s young and infamous art critic Gene Swenson rejected the tradition that linked everything from Cubism to Color Field painting and instead proposed a different trajectory declaring Dada and Surrealism the ancestors of Pop. In 1966, he curated the exhibition “The Other Tradition” at the Philadelphia Institute of Contemporary Art. According to the catalogue, the show’s declared goal was “1) seeing certain twentieth-century works of art which have been overlooked or neglected by art historians, and 2) suggesting alternative ‘intellectual’ rather than formal ways of dealing with this art.” Swenson’s checklist is topped off by four contributions from Duchamp, leading him to ask: “How much longer will we rest content with our defective and infectious critical tools and our academic standards? How many more times can we see the words ‘picture plane,’ ‘modernism,’ ‘crisis,’ new,’ and ‘literary’ without flushing?” (34)

Swenson was reacting to a paradigmatic shift in American art, and many young artists were enthralled to find out that Duchamp’s newly discovered oeuvre spoke to their own strategies of subverting what came before them. He was simply “in the air,” (35) as Bruce Nauman put it. John Cage began lecturing on Duchamp at Black Mountain College (starting in 1952) as well as at the New School of Social Research (1956-58), to a new generation of artists that included Robert Rauschenberg, George Brecht, Alan Kaprow, Al Hensen, Dick Higgins, and Jackson McLow. George Segal remarked that “Marcel Duchamp had a revived life through John Cage.” (36) In 1958 Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns went to see the Duchamp collection at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Years before, during the War years, Joseph Cornell had befriended Duchamp in the course of his collaboration on the latter’s Boîte-en-valise. Yet to comprehend fully the scope of Duchamp’s deep appreciation by post-war generation and contemporary American artists as well as the influence he wielded over them –– especially with his readymades –– nothing serves the purpose better than to hear it in their own words (37) :

Robert Motherwell

“I would say that one of the most astonishing things in my lifetime as an artist is his prominence. Thirty years ago, if somebody had said to me, ‘he may become the major the major influence on the art scene,’ I’d have said: ‘You’re out of your mind,’ and most of my judgments were quite accurate then.”

– Vivien Raynor, “A Talk with Robert Motherwell,” Art News, vol. 73, no. 4 (April 1974). p. 51, quoted in: Dieter Daniels, “Marcel Duchamp: The Most Influential Artist of the 20thCentury?,” in: Museum Jean Tinguely Basel (ed.) Marcel Duchamp, Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2002 [exh. cat.], pp. 37-40, pp. 25-33, p. 25.

Barnett Newman

I want particularly to make clear that if Motherwell wishes to make Marcel Duchamp a father, Duchamp is his father and not mine nor that of any American painter that I respect.”

– in a letter to John I. H. Baur, October 20, 1957, quoted in John P. O’Neill (ed.), Barnett Newman: Selected Writings and Interviews, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990: p. 208.

George Segal

“Marcel Duchamp had a revived life through John Cage.”
– cited by Wouter Kotte, Marcel Duchamp als Zeitmaschine/Marcel Duchamp als Tijdmachine, Köln, Verlag der Buchhandlung Walter König, 1987: p. 86, n. 236.

John Cage

“It is astonishing how very much Marcel Duchamp makes others creative”
– cited by Serge Stauffer in: Thomas Zaunschirm, Bereites Mädchen Ready-made, Klagenfurt: Ritter, 1983, p. 10., quoted in: Marcel Duchamp: The Most Influential Artist of the 20th Century?,” p. 27.
“Say it’s not a Duchamp. Turn it over and it is.”

– “26 statements Re Duchamp” (1969), in: Susan Hapgood, Neo-Dada: Redefining Art 1958-62, New York: The American Federation of Arts, 1994 [exh. cat.], p. 137.

Nam June Paik

“Marcel Duchamp has already done everything there is to do – except video…only through video art can we get ahead of Marcel Duchamp.”

– interview with Irmeline Lebeer, in: Chroniques de l’art vivant, nr. 55 (February 1974), p. 35, quoted in: “Marcel Duchamp: The Most Influential Artist of the 20th Century?,” p. 27.

Robert Morris

“The Readymades are traditionally iconic art objects”

– “Notes on Sculpture 4: Beyond Objects” (1969), in: Charles Harrison and Paul Wood (eds.), Art in Theory: 1900-1990. An Anthology of Changing Ideas, Oxford and Cambridge, MA: 1992, vol. 2, p. 872, quoted in: “Marcel Duchamp: The Most Influential Artist of the 20th Century?,” p. 30.

Joseph Kosuth

The event that made conceivable the realization that it was possible to ‘speak another language’ and still make sense in art was Marcel Duchamp’s first unassisted Readymade. With the unassisted Readymade, art changed its focus from the form of the language to what was being said…This change – one from ‘appearance’ to ‘conception’ – was the beginning of ‘modern’ art and the beginning of conceptual art. All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually.”

– “Art after Philosophy” (1969), in: Art in Theory: 1900-1990. An Anthology of Changing Ideas, p. 844, quoted in: “Marcel Duchamp: The Most Influential Artist of the 20thCentury?,” p. 30.

Allan Kaprow

“[Duchamp] deliberately stopped making art objects in favor of little (ready-made) hints to the effect that you could pick up art anywhere you wanted. In other words, he implied that the whole business of art is quite arbitrary”

– “Interview with Allan Kaprow,” Allan Kaprow, Pasadena: Pasadena Art Museum, 1967 [exh. cat.], p. 8, quoted in: John Tancock, “The Influence of Marcel Duchamp,” in: Anne d’Harnoncourt and Kynaston McShine (eds.), Marcel Duchamp. A Retrospective Exhibition, Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973 [exh. cat.], pp. 160-178, p. 171.

“His readymades… are radically useful contributions to the current art scene. If a snow shovel becomes a work of art by simply calling it that, so is all of New York, so is the Vietnam war, so is a pedantic article on Marcel Duchamp… The Readymade is a paradigm of the way humans make and unmake culture. Better than ‘straight’ philosophy and social science, a good Readymade can ‘embody’ the ironic limits of the traditional theory that says reality is nothing but a projection of mind or minds. ”

– “Doctor MD”, in: “A Collective Portrait of Marcel Duchamp,” quoted in: Anne d’Harnoncourt and Kynaston McShine (eds.), Marcel Duchamp. A Retrospective Exhibition, Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973 [exh. cat.], pp. 204-205, p. 205.
“I think we all learned from… Duchamp. A key feature was discreetness, a timing and a restraint that many of us didn’t learn well enough. Duchamp was personally very helpful to us, no question… both practically and intellectually.”

– interview with Susan Hapgood, quoted in: Neo-Dada: Redefining Art 1958-62, p. 116.

Vito Acconci

“Did this film [Conversions of 1971] record a process parallel to the multivalence between Marcel Duchamp and Rrose Sélavy? ”

“Yes. ”

– interview with Robert Pincus Witten, “Vito Acconci and the Conceptual Performance,” in Artforum, vol. 10, nr. 8 (April 1972), p. 49, quoted in: John Tancock, “The Influence of Marcel Duchamp,” p. 178.

William T. Wiley

“What we can learn from Marcel Duchamp is the same message from any artist who has made his presence manifest in the form of personal achievement: is essentially that we do not have to follow his example. Yet should we find in his example a path that interests us we should trust ourselves enough to follow that path as long as it is possible without an overabundance of human misery”

– “Thoughts on Marcel Duchamp,” in: Brenda Richardson, Wizdumb: William T. Wiley, Berkeley: University Art Museum, 1971, p. 42, quoted in: “The Influence of Marcel Duchamp,” p. 173.

Paul Pfeiffer

“Somewhere I read a statement by Duchamp to the effect that his art was intended as a destroyer, specifically of identity. I find that really inspiring. Putting a mustache on Mona Lisa makes a pretty basic point about the fluidity of identity and the depths to which gender, race and nationality are encoded into vision. I’m interested in multiple meanings and a kind of ambiguity that frustrates any attempt to pin it down.”
– Linda Yablonsky, “Making Microart that can Suggest Macrotruths,” in: The New York Times, December 9, 2001, p. 39.

Richard Pettibone
“My response to Duchamp hasn’t changed at all in the last 34 years. His work is just as beautiful. Being a visual artist I feel that it’s very important what things look like & in spite of all that talk about chance & giving up taste, etc. Duchamp’s work is still drop dead gorgeous.”

– letter to Francis M. Naumann, August 1997, quoted in: Francis M. Naumann, Apropos of Marcel. The Art of Making Art after Duchamp in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, New York: Curt Marcus Gallery, 1999 [exh. cat.], p. 13.

Sanford Biggers

“Duchamp’s readymades are now aesthetically and formally pleasing, though they were controversial for their time and opposed the conventions… I also follow the idea of keeping the form as one of the most important elements but also feel strongly about challenging prescribed notions in art theory. The fact that I am the creator or author of these pieces also adds to how these pieces are interpreted by art theory.”
– Lauren Wilcox, “ Transformation and Tradition: Interview with Sanford Biggers,” in:Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal, vol. 2, nr. 4, Art & Literature (January 2002)

Elaine Sturtevant
“[Duchamp’s] concern with trying to redefine what we consider art was a very big factor in terms of my own work.”

– Francis M. Naumann, Apropos of Marcel. The Art of Making Art after Duchamp in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, New York: Curt Marcus Gallery, 1999 [exh. cat.], p. 22.

Claes Oldenburg
“[Duchamp] was certainly on the scene. But I believe that the sort of thing I was into, which really was about the very gritty aspects of the Lower East Side, was very remote from Duchamp.”

– interview with Susan Hapgood, in: Neo-Dada: Redefining Art 1958-62, p. 124.

“Yes, he was a historical figure.”

– interview with Benjamin H. D. Buchloh (1985), quoted in: Martha Buskirk and Mignon Nixon (eds.), The Duchamp Effect. Essays, Interviews, Round Table. Cambridge, MA: MIT/October, 1996, pp. 33-36, p. 33. [(originally published as “Three Conversations in 1985: Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, Robert Morris,” in: October 70 (Fall 1994).]

George Brecht
“The difference between a chair by Duchamp and one of my chairs could be that Duchamp’s chair is on a pedestal and mine can still be used.”

– Henry Martin, An Introduction to George Brecht’s Book on the Tumbler on Fire, Milan: Multhipla Edizioni, 1978, p. 71, quoted in: Neo-Dada: Redefining Art 1958-62, p. 27.

“I read somewhere, quite a while ago, that an interviewer asked: “How does it feel now, Mr. Duchamp, that everyone knows your name?” And Duchamp answered, “My grocer doesn’t.”

– “Notes on the Inevitable Relationship GB-MD (If there is one)” (1973), quoted in: Anthony Hill (ed.), Duchamp: Passim. A Marcel Duchamp Anthology, Langhorne, PA: G+B Arts International, 1994, p. 167.

Andy Warhol
“Well, yeah, we saw him a lot, a little bit. He was around. I didn’t know he was that famous or anything.”

– interview with Benjamin H. D. Buchloh (1985), in: The Duchamp Effect. Essays, Interviews, Round Table., pp. 37-45, p. 37.

Jasper Johns

“Duchamp’s wit and high common sense (“Limit the no. of rdymades yearly”), the mind slapping at thoughtless values (“Use a Rembrandt as an ironing board”), his brilliantly inventive questioning of visual, mental and verbal focus and order (the beautiful Wilson-Lincoln system, which was never added to the glass; ‘lose the possibility of identifying … 2 colors, 2 laces, 2 hats, 2 forms’; the vision of an alphabet ‘only suitable for the description of this picture’) inform and brighten the whole of [the Green Box].”

– “The Green Box,” Scrap (December 23, 1960), p. 4, in: Joseph Masheck (ed.), Marcel Duchamp in Perspective, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975, p. 111.

“Marcel Duchamp, one of this century’s pioneer artists, moved his work through the retinal boundaries which had been established which had been established with Impressionism into a field where language, thought and vision act upon another.… The art community feels Duchamp’s presence and his absence. He has changed the condition of being here.”

– “Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968),” Artforum, vol. VII, nr. 3 (November 1968), p. 6, in:Marcel Duchamp in Perspective, 1975, p. 147.
“The ready-made was moved mentally and, later, physically into a place previously occupied by the work of art.”

– quoted in Wouter Kotte, Marcel Duchamp als Zeitmaschine/Marcel Duchamp als Tijdmachine, Köln: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walter König, 1987, p. 84 (footnote 203).

Donald Judd

“Duchamp invented several fires but unfortunately didn’t bother with them.… The work Duchamp does have is of course highly interesting, but it’s a mistake not to have developed it. His work and his historical importance are different things. It’s to other people’s credit to have developed his or related ideas… The roto-reliefs and the ready-mades and assisted ready-mades are fine.”

– “Marcel Duchamp and/or Rrose Sélavy,” Arts Magazine, vol. XXXIX, nr. 6 (March 1965), pp. 53-54, in: Marcel Duchamp in Perspective, p. 121.

Robert Smithson

“I see Duchamp as a kind of priest of a certain sort. He was turning a urinal into a baptismal front… In other words, a Readymade doesn’t offer any kind of engagement. Once again it is the alienated relic of our modern postindustrial society. But he is just using manufactured goods, transforming them into gold and mystifying them.

– Moira Roth, “Robert Smithson, an Interview”, Artforum, vol. XII, nr. 2 (October 1973), p. 47, in: Marcel Duchamp in Perspective, pp. 134-137, p. 136.

William N. Copley

“If Marcel Duchamp ever died, his phoenix Rrose Sélavy lifted herself from the remains of the past that the former had desecrated by putting an ink-moustache on the Mona Lisa, thus creating a present for himself and all of us in which nouns like ‘art’ and ‘poetry’ melt into a single word.”

– “Art is not Furniture”, in: Alfred M. Fischer and Dieter Daniels (eds.), Übrigens Sterben Immer die Anderen. Marcel Duchamp und die Avantgarde seit 1950, Köln: Museum Ludwig, 1987 [exh. cat.], p. 283 (translated from the German).

Mike Bidlo

“Many artists have spent significant energies exploring his legacy”

The Fountain Drawings, Zurich/New York: Bischofberger/Shafrazi, 1998 [exh. cat.], p. 54.

Joseph Cornell
“I believe that surrealism has healthier possibilities than have been developed. The constructions of Marcel Duchamp who the surrealists themselves acknowledge bear out this thought, I believe.”

– letter to Alfred Barr, 13 November 1936, quoted in: Anne Temkin, “Habitat for a Dossier,” in: Polly Koch (ed.), Joseph Cornell/Marcel Duchamp…in resonance, Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 1999 [exh. cat.], pp. 79-93, p. 87.

Robert Rauschenberg

“[Duchamp’s] recognition of the lack of art in art and the artfulness of everything, I think, is probably his most important contribution.”

– transcribed from the film Rebel Ready-Made: Marcel Duchamp (BBC, June 23, 1966), quoted in: Francis M. Naumann, Marcel Duchamp. The Art of Making Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, New York: Abrams, 1999, p. 294.

“Marcel Duchamp is all but impossible to write about. Anything you may say about him is at the same time untrue, but when I think of him I get a sweet taste in my body.”

– “A Collective Portrait of Marcel Duchamp,” p. 217.

Yoko Ono

“drink an orange juice laced with

sunshine and spring and you’ll see Duchamp.”

– “A Collective Portrait of Marcel Duchamp,” p. 215.

Jason Rhoades

“Duchamp for me is like L. Ron Hubbard. He’s a slippery figure who keeps popping up.”

– Russell Ferguson, “Given: 1. The Caprice, 2. The Ferrari,” in: Parkett, No. 58 (2000), pp. 122-125, p. 123.

Hannah Wilke

“To honor Duchamp is to oppose him… The issue that remains, was Duchamp trying to control his own death by killing art while he was still alive – aesthetic impotence for the sake of survival… Objecting to art as commodity is an honorable occupation that most women find it impossible to afford. Is this ready maid, having collected many of the readymades now in Oldenburg’s Ray Gun Wing owned by Peter Ludwig, owed an equal share for her part in the collaboration? Could commodities but speak, they would say; Our use, value may be a thing that interests men… In the eyes of each other we are nothing but exchange values.”

– “I Object. Memoirs of a Sugar Giver”, in: Übrigens Sterben Immer die Anderen. Marcel Duchamp und die Avantgarde seit 1950, pp. 263-271, pp. 269,270.

Arakawa & Madeline Gins

Managing to position objects to hold their own in relation to that which ubiquitously happens along and even to redirect it, using very-adjusted and less-adjusted ready-madeinsertions into symbolizing power, an inchoate emanating-out ready-made in its own right, to convey and express enough and more than enough, M. D. changed the history of expression (read symbolizing) and redefined (artistic) purpose — two remarkable achievements.

– e-mail to the author, February 7, 2003.

Ed Ruscha


“If [Duchamp] hadn’t come along, we would have needed to invent him.”

– interview with Robert L. Pincus, October 30, 1990, in: Robert L. Pincus,” ‘Quality Material…’: Duchamp Disseminated in the Sixties and Seventies,” in: Bonnie Clearwater (ed.), West Coast Duchamp, Miami Beach: Grassfield Press, 1991, pp. 87-101, p. 100.

“What do you think is Duchamp’s most significant contribution?”

“That he discovered common objects and showed you could make art out of them.”

– interview with Elizabeth Armstrong, June 17, 1994, in: The Duchamp Effect. Essays, Interviews, Round Table., pp. 55-56, p. 55.

Bruce Connor

“I still feel that he dealt with enigmas and arbitrariness in the world with a sharp analytical mind.”

– interview with Elizabeth Armstrong, June 9, 1994, in: The Duchamp Effect. Essays, Interviews, Round Table., pp. 57-59, p. 57.

Vija Celmins

“I was greatly influenced by Duchamp, if only indirectly, by questioning what painting is – and should be.”

– interview with Robert L. Pincus, March 26, 1991, in: ‘Quality Material…’: Duchamp Disseminated in the Sixties and Seventies,” p. 88.

Sherrie Levine
“I was very surprised when I saw my first Fountain. When I made the decision to cast the urinal, I was thinking primarily about Duchamp, but the finished high polish bronze sculpture more readily evoked Brancusi.”

– interview with Martha Buskirk, May 13, 1994, in: The Duchamp Effect. Essays, Interviews, Round Table., pp. 177- 181, p. 179.

Louise Lawler

“[T]o me, Duchamp signaled a ‘bottle rack’ (who uses that?), a weird looking urinal, and a lot of pictures of him smoking and enjoying the sun with other people.…]n fact, all the readymades are interesting-looking things now, and their normalcy is gone. …This discussion of Duchamp seems a good opportunity to express my discomfort with too much referencing of authority that is restrictive, rather than enjoying the work’s ‘kindling’ effect and use.”

– interview with Martha Buskirk, May 20, 1994, in: The Duchamp Effect. Essays, Interviews, Round Table., pp. 183- 186, pp. 183, 186.

“Duchamp’s fetishization gets on my nerves.”

– e-mail to the author, February 2, 2003.

Chris Burden

“He was definitely a formative figure for me… In an age of Cal Arts and Jeff Koons, Duchamp is a different role model”

– interview with Robert L. Pincus, September 26, 1990, in: “ ‘Quality Material…’: Duchamp Disseminated in the Sixties and Seventies,” pp. 98, 100.

John Baldessari

“There is a serious unseriousness going on… I see a kinship there, I feel I understand what [Duchamp’s] about.”

-interview with Moira Roth, January 6, 1973, in: ‘Quality Material…’: Duchamp Disseminated in the Sixties and Seventies,” p. 88.

Clyfford Still

“Few men could better exemplify the antithesis of my work than Marcel Duchamp.”

– “Letter to the Editor,” Artforum (February 1964), quoted in Calvin Tomkins, Duchamp. A Biography, New York: Henry Holt, 1996, p. 438.

William de Kooning

“And then there is that one-man movement, Marcel Duchamp – for me a truly modern movement because it implies that each artist can do what he thinks he ought to – a movement for each person and open for everybody.—”

– “What Abstract Art Means to Me,” Museum of Modern Art Bulletin, vol. 18, nr. 3 (June 1951), p. 7.

Shigeko Kubota

“Are we dancing still on the gigantic palm of Duchamp, thinking it is a big continent and ocean?”

– “Twenty Questions About My Work,” quoted in: Zdenek Felix (ed.), Shigeko Kubota. Video Sculptures, 1981 [exh. cat.], p. 51.

Jeff Koons

“You can look at Marcel Duchamp… Everything comes back to the ability of the artist to be able to communicate, to focus.

– “Jeff Koons. I have my finger on the eternal,” interview with Andrew Renton, in: Flash Art, vol. XXIII, nr. 153 (Summer 1990), pp. 110-115, quoted in: Thomas Zaunschirm, Kunst als Sündenfall. Die Tabuverletzungen des Jeff Koons, Freiburg: Rombach, 1996, pp. 7-20, p. 16.

“My process of distancing myself from subjective art continued through the late ‘70’s, which included exposure to Marcel Duchamp. He seemed the total opposite of the subjective art I had been immersed in. It was the most objective statement possible, the readymade. I loved that aspect and started doing my first inflatables.”

– interview with Alan Jones, in: Temaceleste, nr. 88 (November/December 2001), pp. 34-39, p. 36.

Bruce Naumann

“The kind of questions important to Duchamp were absorbed and circulated. Many people dealt with them and thought about them. In this regard he certainly was an influence.”

– interview with Lorraine Sciarra (1972), quoted in: Christine Hoffmann (ed.), Bruce Nauman. Interviews 1967-1988, Amsterdam: Verlag der Kunst, 1966, pp. 66-87, p. 69 (translated from the German).

“He leads to everybody and nobody”.

– “A Collective Portrait of Marcel Duchamp,” p. 211.

It is obvious what Barry Schwabsky meant when he reviewed the Arturo Schwarz’s revised edition of The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp in 2001: “Duchamp’s work is so deeply encoded in the fabric of contemporary art that I’m tempted to keep this book not with other art monographs, but on the ready-reference shelf next to Roget, Bartlett, and Merriam-Webster: Duchamp is to a great extent, our vocabulary.” (38) The an-artist quickly had become the Über-father par excellence, creating an anxiety of influence some felt was too overpowering. (39) Particularly within the American context.

Duchamp’s significance as originating father is generally seen to be identical to the significance of the readymades in relation to postmodernism. As paternal, theological origin, Duchamp is the readymades and the “readymades Duchamp” comes to signify postmodernism.… Duchamp has become a powerful authorizing function by which works produced by contemporary artists claim nepotistic validation as begotten by the Duchampian seed. (40)
Today, with the concept of irony co-opted and empty gestures of shocking for shock’s sake(41) held in high regard (with no one within the art world ever offended), many artistic strategies add up to nothing more than a “conformity of refusal.” (42) Could it be that the readymade – just one decade short of its 100th birthday – is finally losing its disruptive potential? (43) Maybe so, if its concept is only interpreted as an excuse for “anything goes” or the mere provocative gesture declaring anything to be art via a change of context. Duchamp himself had already noticed as much when he allowed his readymades to be turned into an edition precisely at that moment in the early 1960s when they had become celebrated icons and art-world commodities. Nowadays, it is not enough simply to appropriate formally the an-artist’s work. Every artist borrowing Duchamp’s highly charged visual vocabulary walks a fine line between creating a token pastiche (an art-world inside joke based solely on recognizing affinities) and intellectually engaging the ideas surrounding the work.

Duchamp –– except for his fleeting fame at the Armory Show of 1913, caused by the succès de scandale of the Nude Descending a Staircase–– had the luxury of being unrecognized as a major artistic force until he had reached his sixties. Left to himself, far away from the spotlight and thus from any system’s intricacies of interdependence, he could proclaim himself to be nothing but a “breather,” being mostly (and somewhat wrongfully) known for having abandoned all artistic activity from the mid-20’s on. Besides his many artist friends and a few wealthy patrons, Duchamp lived completely detached from the art world as we know it. He carefully kept himself independent, seeing to it personally that his works would end up grouped together with a few collectors and museums. Later in life, Duchamp thought the contemporary art market responsible for the impossibility of young artists truly to concentrate on what they were doing. He came to lament the perpetually increasing tide of attention, of dealers, galleries, collectors, critics, and exhibitions, turning art into an “over-developed exoteric”:

By that I mean that the general public accepts and demands too much from art, far too much from art; that the general public today seeks aesthetic satisfaction wrapped up in a set of material and speculative values and is drawing artistic output towards an enormous dilution.

This enormous dilution, losing in quality what it gains in quantity, is accompanied by a leveling down of present taste and its immediate result will be to shroud the near future in mediocrity.

In conclusion, I hope that this mediocrity, conditioned by too many factors foreign to art per se, will this time bring a revolution on the ascetic level, of which the general public will not even be aware and which only a few initiates will develop on the fringe of a world blinded by economic fireworks. The great artist of tomorrow will go underground. (44)
Underground, the artist would examine whole new ways of expression to subvert the overall status quo of the art world in all of its wide-ranging aspects. In a 1922 survey by Alfred Stieglitz regarding the status of photography as a form of art, Duchamp had answered: “You know exactly how I feel about photography. I would like to see it make people despise painting until something else will make photography unbearable. There we are.” (45)< Today, installation and video art are ever on the rise, figurative painting yet again en vogue (with often surprising results), and the idea of a single work of art often substituted for the impact of a whole group of them or an environment. More than ever, artists “on the fringe” (geographically and ethnically) make themselves heard. (46) As a critique of biotechnology, some artists are using new materials such as DNA, treating the body as a readymade.


click to enlarge
Footnote ReturnFootnote Return
Figure 8
Marcel Duchamp, Étant Donnés(inside
and outside view), 1946-1966

It remains to be seen how these strategies will eventually play out. An interesting aspect pertaining to Duchamp’s oeuvre is a renewed interest in his last major work,Given: 1. The Waterfall, 2. The Illuminating Gas (1946-1966) (Fig. 8), Étant Donnés for short. in a recent interview, Björk, Iceland’s Queen of Pop, declaring Duchamp a “genius,” expressing awe for the Étant Donnés: “And then he created an artwork, when he was already very old, when everyone thought he’d already be over with, and this artwork changed completely the 20th century.” (47) For the New York photographer Gregory Crewdson, “it’s extraordinarily photographic, to the point of looking through an aperture at a frozen moment in time. It’s everything I want from an art piece. It’s haunting, mysterious, troubling, beautiful, heightened, disturbing.” (48) Looking through two peepholes drilled at eyelevel into a massive wooden door in a separate room at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the viewer becomes aware of a 3-D multimedia assemblage depicting the partly hidden body of nude woman (with a prominently displayed, shaved vulva) lying on a bed of twigs and clutching a gas burner in front of a trompe l’oeil landscape with a running waterfall and clouds made of cotton. Duchamp had secretly worked on Étant Donnés for twenty years. It was revealed only after his death in the summer of 1969. (49) After seeing the an-artist’s last work, Hannah Wilke, another artist greatly inspired by him, asked: “Did Dr. Duchamp (MD) disguise with dignity or despair the destruction, degeneration, and denigration of the maimed model of mortality – Mother?” (50) Since Socrates, asking questions often proves more beneficial and generates more creative energy than trying to provide that one right answer. Duchamp himself was not always right, of course. In 1961, for example, he predicted that “in five or six years, no one would talk about [the readymade] anymore.” (51)Throughout his late interviews in the sixties, he often pointed out that he was mostly interested in an audience fifty or a hundred years hence. Thirty-five years after his death, that audience is ever-growing.
 


Notes

Footnote Return* Parts of this essay were presented as a lecture entitled “Marcel Duchamp, Stephen Jay Gould and the End of ‘Anything Goes’,” on 15 June 2002, on the occasion of a symposium held during the run of a Duchamp exhibition at the Museum Jean Tinguely, Basel, Switzerland. I thank Francis M. Naumann for suggesting the title, drawing my attention to various sources and providing copies of some articles while my Duchamp library was being shipped from New York to Munich.

Footnote Return1. Katharine Kuh, The Artist’s Voice: Talks with Seventeen Artists, New York, Harper & Row, 1962: p. 92.

Footnote Return2. In a 1959 interview, Duchamp coined the sobriquet “an-artist” for himself, a pun on anarchist – while dismissing the term “anti-artist” as someone who would depend on his opposite too much in order to exist (and would thus still be as much of an artist as the one without the prefix “anti-“); from an an interview with George Heard Hamilton and Richard Hamilton, “Marcel Duchamp Speaks,” BBCThird Program (series: Art, Anti-Art, ca. October 1959); issued as an audio tape by William Furlong (ed.), Audio Arts Magazine, vol. 2, nr. 4, 1976 (London). I thank André Gervais for providing me with the source of Duchamp’s first mention of “an-artist.”

Footnote Return3. “Marcel Duchamp Talking about Readymades” (Interview by Phillipe Collin, 21 June 1967), in Museum Jean Tinguely, Basel (ed.), Marcel Duchamp, Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2002 [exh. cat.]: pp. 37-40.

Footnote Return4. Michel Sanouillet and Elmer Peterson (eds.), The Writings of Marcel Duchamp, New York, Da Capo, 1989, p. 33.

Footnote Return5. In his Marcel Duchamp. The Art of Making Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (New York, Abrams, 1999) Francis M. Naumann differentiates between “assisted readymade,” “imitated rectified readymade,” “ printed readymade,” “ readymade (or ready-made),” “ rectified readymade,” and “semi-readymade” (pp. 308-309), not to mention the “reciprocal readymade,” as discussed in one of Duchamp’s notes in his Green Box: “Use a Rembrandt as an Ironing Board,” (in The Writings of Marcel Duchamp, p. 32), a remark that may well have inspired Robert Rauschenberg to do his Erased de Kooning (1953) and Jasper Johns to use Duchamp’s small bronze Female Fig Leaf for a surface imprint (albeit almost undetectable) on his painting No (1961). Throughout this essay, I concern myself with the “unassisted readymade.”

Footnote Return6. Naumann 1999, p. 74.

Footnote Return7. Anonymous, “Artist Marcel Duchamp Visits U-classes, Exhibits at Walker,” Minnesota Daily, 22 October 1965.

Footnote Return8. Dieter Daniels, Duchamp und die Anderen. Der Modelfall einer künstlerischen Wirkungsgeschichte in der Moderne, Köln: DuMont, 1992, p. 205.

Footnote Return9. Duchamp, cited in Arturo Schwarz, The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp, New York: Delano Greenidge, 2000, p. 68.

Footnote Return10. “Marcel Duchamp Talking about Readymades,” interview with collin, 1967, p. 40.

Footnote Return11. Werner Spies, Max Ernst, Collagen, Köln: 1988, p. 23.

Footnote Return12. It has been argued that only with their documentation within the Boîte -en-Valise did Duchamp take the significant step of both defining the readymades as a clearly defined group of works (deciding which ones he would include when starting to work on the Boîte around 1936) and placing them within the context of art (Duchamp und die Anderen. Der Modelfall einer künstlerischen Wirkungsgeschichte in der Moderne, p. 217).

Footnote Return13. Hector Obalk, “The Unfindable Readymade,” in: Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal, vol. 1, no. 2, (Articles)

Footnote Return14. Hector Obalk, “The Unfindable Readymade,” (as confirmed by André Gervais).

Footnote Return15. George Dickie, Art and the Aesthetic. An Institutional Analysis, Ithaca and London, Cornell UP, 1974: pp. 38-39.

Footnote Return16. Dieter Daniels, “Marcel Duchamp: The Most Influential Artist of the 20th Century?,” in Museum Jean Tinguely Basel (ed.), Marcel Duchamp: p. 29.

Footnote Return17. Brooks Adams “Like Smoke: A Duchampian Legacy,” in: Christos M. Joachemides and Norman Rosenthal, eds., The Age of Modernism. Art in the 20th Century, Ostfildern: Hatje, 1997 [exh. cat.], p. 321. In this regard, see also Pontus Hulten’s remark (in Pontus Hulten, ed., Marcel Duchamp, Milano: Bompiani, 1993 [exh. cat.], p. 19): “ If, in 1953, somebody had said that forty years later [Duchamp’s] work would be considered more important than Picasso’s, that person would have been looked on as a madman. Et pourtant…”

Footnote Return18. Duchamp, in Hans Richter, Dada: Art and Anti-Art, New York, McGraw Hill, 1965: pp. 207-208.

Footnote Return19. Hans Richter, Begegnungen von Dada bis Heute, Köln, DuMont: pp. 155ff.

Footnote Return20. Rosalind Constable, “New York’s Avant-garde, and How It Got There,” cited in Jennifer Gough-Cooper and Jacques Caumont, “Ephemerides on and about Marcel Duchamp and Rrose Sélavy, 1887-1968,” in Pontus Hulten, ed., Marcel Duchamp, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1993, entry for May 17, 1964.

Footnote Return21. Among the important shows of Duchamp’s work in the late 40s and early 50s were those at the Sidney Janis Gallery, the Rose Fried Gallery, and the Julien Levy Gallery, New York, as well as various exhibitions at the Yale University Art Gallery. Peggy Guggenheim’s Art of this Century was already displaying his works in the early 40s, and in 1957, the Guggenheim Museum launched a major travel exhibition of the three Duchamp brothers, entitled “Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Marcel Duchamp.”

Footnote Return22. Sargeant Winthrop, “Dada’s Daddy: A New Tribute is Paid to Duchamp, Pioneer of Nonsense and Nihilism,” in: Life, vol. 32, no. 17 ( 28 March 1952): pp. 100-110.

Footnote Return23. Robert Motherwell, ed., The Dada Painters and Poets. An Anthology, Cambridge: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1989: xxiii. Other significant English-language publications on Duchamp before 1960 include Marcel Duchamp: From the Green Box (New Haven, The Readymade Press, 1957; 25 notes translated by George Heard Hamilton and published in an edition of 400), Robert Lebel’s widely available monograph Marcel Duchamp (New York, Grove Press, 1959), and Richard Hamilton’s typographic version of all of the Green Box notes in The Bride Stripped Bare by her Bachelors, Even (London and Bradford, Percy Lund, Humphries & Co., and New York, George Wittenborn, 1960).

Footnote Return24. Newman, in John P. O’Neill (ed.), Barnett Newman: Selected Writings and Interviews, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990: p. 208.

Footnote Return25. Newman, in O’Neill 1990: p. 39.

Footnote Return26. Newman, in O’Neill 1990: p, 247. Newman went on to suggest that MoMA should “put on an exhibition of machine guns.” It bears notice that in September 1999, when the New York gallery owner Mary Boone presented Tom Sach’s “Haute Bricolage,” in which firearm paraphernalia were displayed and 9-millimeter bullets were placed in a bowl for visitors to take home, she was briefly arrested by the police for the illegal distribution of live ammunition.

Footnote Return27. Greenberg, “Avant-Garde Attitudes: New Art in the Sixties,” in John O’Brian, ed., Clement Greenberg: The Collected Essays and Criticism, vol. 4., Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1993, p. 293.

Footnote Return28. Clement Greenberg, “Recentness of Sculpture,” in O’Brian 1993, p. 252.

Footnote Return29. Donald B. Kuspit, Clement Greenberg: Art Critic, Madison: The university of Wisconsin Press, 1979, p. 114.

Footnote Return30. Greenberg, “Avant-Garde Attitudes: New Art in the Sixties,” in O’Brian 1993: pp. 301-2.

Footnote Return31. Clement Greenberg, “Recentness of Sculpture,” in O’Brian 1993: p. 254.

Footnote Return32. See Thierry de Duve, Clement Greenberg: Between the Lines, Paris: Dis Voir, 1996 as well as hisRésonances du Readymade, Nîmes 1989, p. 132 (referred to in Dieter Daniels, “Marcel Duchamp: The Most Influential Artist of the 20th Century?,” p. 31.)

Footnote Return33. Marcel Duchamp, “Where Do We Go From Here?,” address to a symposium at the Philadelphia Museum College of Art, March 1961, in Anthony Hill, ed., Duchamp: Passim. A Marcel Duchamp Anthology, Langhorne, PA: G+B Arts International, 1994, p. 89. Duchamp seems to have had an unfavorable opinion of Abstract Expressionism’s major player, Jackson Pollock. According to Thomas B. Hess, Duchamp “complained” to him that Pollock “still uses paint, and we finished that… [Pollock] never will enter the Pantheon!” (Hess, “J’accuse Marcel Duchamp,” in Joseph Masheck, ed., Marcel Duchamp in Perspective, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1975: p. 120). Duchamp had declared painting dead with his last oil on canvas, Tu m’ from 1918. In regard to Pollock, there is yet another anecdote worth telling: In 1945, Peggy Guggenheim called in Duchamp and David Hare to deal with a crisis involving a twenty-foot-long mural by Pollock. The mural was too long for the space it had been commissioned to fill, in the entrance hall of Guggenheim’s apartment. Duchamp coolly advised cutting eight inches off one end. According to Hare, “Duchamp said that in this type of painting it wasn’t needed” (Calvin Tomkins, Duchamp: A Biography, New York, Henry Holt, 1996: p. 362).

Footnote Return34. Scott Rothkopf, “Banned and Determined,” in Artforum, vol. 40, no. 10 (Summer 2002): p. 144.

Footnote Return35. John Tancock, “The Influence of Marcel Duchamp,” in Anne d’Harnoncourt and Kynaston McShine, eds.,Marcel Duchamp. A Retrospective Exhibition [exh. cat.], Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973: p. 174.

Footnote Return36. Segal, cited in Wouter Kotte, Marcel Duchamp als Zeitmaschine/Marcel Duchamp als Tijdmachine, Köln, Verlag der Buchhandlung Walter König, 1987: p. 86, n. 236.

Footnote Return37. Marcel Duchamp’s influence was not limited to the acknowledgment of his readymades. His The Bride Stripped Bare by her Bachelor’s, Even (a.k.a. theLarge Glass, 1915-23) (Fig. 7) proved equally inspiring to many artists. As this exhibition focuses on the impact of the readymades on the post-war and contemporary American art scene,
click to enlarge
Footnote Return
Figure 7
Marcel Duchamp, The
Bride Stripped Bare by
her Bachelors,
Even
(a.k.a. the Large Glass),
1915-23
his influence on European artists since the 1940s is not discussed (from Arman, Gianfranco Baruchello, Joseph Beuys, Guillaume Bijl, Marcel Broodthaers, Hans Haacke, Richard Hamilton, Thomas Hirschhorn, Ilya Kabakov, Martin Kippenberger, Piero Manzoni, Sigmar Polke, Gerhard Richter, Daniel Spoerri, André Thomkins, Jean Tinguely and Ben Vautier to the “Young British Artists,” many artists come to mind – and those, of course, of other parts of the world). A more complete list of quotations by post-war American artists would also include statements from Bill Anastasi, Michael Asher, John Armleder, Richard Artschwager, Matthew Barney, Jim Dine, Mark Dion, Brian O’Doherty, Robert Gober, Al Henson, Eva Hesse, Dick Higgins, Ray Johnson, Mike Kelley, Ellsworth Kelly, Edward Kienholz, Alison Knowles, Barbara Kruger, Les Levine, Roy Lichtenstein, Glenn Ligon, George Maciunas, Walter de Maria, Allan McCollum, Paul McCarthy, Tony Oursler, Richard Prince, Charles Ray, Larry Rivers, James Rosenquist, Andres Serrano, Cindy Sherman, Kiki Smith, Haim Steinbach, Paul Thek, Wayne Thiebaud, Robert Watts, Tom Wesselman, Emmett Williams, Fred Wilson, and Christopher Wool. In a recent statement, Laurence Weiner – believing that his answer would come to late to be acknowledged in the survey – denied any influence Duchamp might have had on his work: “I seemed to have missed the deadline, which is as close to being Duchampian as I hope I’ll ever be” (fax to the author, February 3, 2003). Jeanne-Claude, speaking for Christo, also saw no connection between her husband’s work and Duchamp: “When he showed his Bicycle Wheel, he did not do anything to it. With Christo it is the opposite, starting with his early works in the 50’s.” (telephone conversation with the author, February 1, 2003). One should keep in mind that the Duchamp effect is not only limited to the visual arts. He has inspired many works of literature, and – starting with John Cage – many minds of the music world (among them Merce Cunningham, David Bowie, Bryan Ferry, Grant Hart, REM, Beck, and Björk).

Footnote Return38. Schwabsky, in “Coffee Table: Barry Schwabsky and Andy Grundberg on Art and Photography,”Bookforum, vol. 8, no. 2 (Winter 2001): p. 42.

Footnote Return39. Regarding Duchamp’s overpowering influence, three examples come to mind: Joseph Beuys’ 1964 performance Das Schweigen des Marcel Duchamp wird überbewertet (The Silence of Duchamp is Overrated) andVivre et laisser mourir ou la mort tragique de Marcel Duchamp (To Live and Let Die or the Tragic Death of Marcel Duchamp), also of 1964, a series of eight canvases by Gilles Aillaud, Eduardo Arroyo, and Antonin Recalati. More recently, Peter Saul painted Pooping on Duchamp (1996).

Footnote Return40. Amelia Jones, Postmodernism and the En-gendering of Marcel Duchamp, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 8, 14.

Footnote Return41. On the issue of Duchamp and concepts of taste and disgust, see the argument between Jean Clair, “Duchamp at the Turn of the Centuries” (a translated excerpt from his Marcel Duchamp et la fin de l’art, Paris: Gallimard, 2000), in: Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal, vol. 1, no. 3 (Winter 2000), News, and Arthur C. Danto, “Marcel Duchamp and the End of Taste: A Defense of Contemporary Art,” in: Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal, vol. 1, nr. 3 (Winter 2000), News,

Footnote Return42. I have borrowed the phrase from the title of an article by Peter Bürger, “Der Konformismus der Verweigerung. Anmerkungen zur Neo-Neo-Avantgarde,” in: Texte zur Kunst, vol. 12, no. 48 (December 2002): p. 165.

Footnote Return43. Since 1997, the artist Rhonda Roland Shearer and her husband, the late Stephen Jay Gould, have raised havoc, at least within the discipline of art history, by arguing that Duchamp did not select his objects, but fabricated them himself, or altered early studio photographs depicting the original readymades, now mostly lost, see the transcriptions of their conference Methods of Understanding in Art and Science: The Case of Duchamp and Poincaré, November 5-7, 1999 and Rhonda Roland Shearer, “Why the Hatrack is and/or is not Readymade,”Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal, vol. 1, nr. 3, Multimedia (December 2000). Their hypotheses seem to revive some of the readymade’s upsetting possibilities.

Footnote Return44. “Where Do We Go From Here?” (1961), in: Duchamp: Passim. A Marcel Duchamp Anthology, p. 89.

Footnote Return45. The Writings of Marcel Duchamp, p. 165; originally published in Manuscripts, No. 4 (New York, December, 1922).

Footnote Return46. For a scathing examination of the contemporary art world’s mechanisms (while holding up the figure of Duchamp as an important predecessor), see Bedri Baykam, Paint and the Post-Duchamp Crisis. The Fight of a Cultural Guerilla for the Rights of Non-Western Artists and the Empty World of the Neo-Ready-Mades, Istanbul: Literatür, 1994. An excerpt follows: “The West, which is moving anyway more and more into the ‘multi-cultural art world,’ behaves as if it was doing a favor to the East and South. This is definitely wrong and no ‘favor’ is needed. In fact they are only starting to pay the interest of years of constipation and prejudiced blockheadedness. They are also trying to bring a fresh breath to their once again bored art world, which is sinking in an unspoken crisis generated paradoxically by the ever-growing importance of Marcel Duchamp, provoking lost generations working on pasticheideas” (p. 212); “At this moment, Marcel Duchamp’s timeless, a-national, ambiguous, ready-mades and concepts, interpretable in 1000 different ways, come as handy and as opportune as water in the desert, although in its new variations the humor and witty sarcasm of Marcel, of course, is not present” (p. 303).

Footnote Return47. Björk, from an interview Thomas Venter, in “Der Look Passiert Nicht,” Süddeutsche Zeitung, 27 August 2001 (translated from the German).

Footnote Return48. Dodie Kazanjin, “Gregory Crewdson. Twilight Zone,” Vogue (May 2002): p. 300.

Footnote Return49. The appearance of the Etant Donnés after Duchamp’s death came as a complete surprise to most, contrary to many later accounts. John Canaday, reviewing the work for The New York Times, wrote that it was “very interesting, but nothing new, ” just “an entertaining invention that has arrived a bit late to make a sensation.… For the first time, this cleverest of 20th-century masters looks a bit retardaire. Edward Kienholz, as the major specific example, has gone so far beyond the spent and sterile slickness of this final Duchamp work that he makes Duchamp look like Bouguereau” (“Philadelphia Museum Shows Final Duchamp Work,” in The New York Times, July 7, 1969. Warhol, in 1971, is the first artist on record to be inspired by Duchamp’s last work, while contemplating an idea for a gallery show consisting only of binoculars with which the visitors would have to find the actress/artist Brigid Polka performing in the window of a faraway building: “It also has to do with the same thing Duchamp was doing [inEtant Donnés], looking through a box [sic]. Sex…in the window…Oh, that would be nutty. That’s just the kind of thing you’d want to see with binoculars-some perversion, right? Somebody jerking off. Brigid could be the art. She could stand in the window.” (David Bourdon, Warhol, New York: Abrams, 1989, pp. 315-316; the quotation is from a telephone conversation between Bourdon and Andy Warhol in June 1971. I thank Ms. Yona Backer for drawing this source to my attention).

Footnote Return50. “I Object. Memoirs of a Sugar Giver”, in: Übrigens Sterben Immer die Anderen. Marcel Duchamp und die Avantgarde seit 1950: p. 270.

Footnote Return51. “Marcel Duchamp Talking About Readymades,” p. 40.

Fig. 8 ©2003 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

Von Readymades und “Asstricks”

Der folgende Beitrag erscheint unter gleichem Titel in einer Publikation des Staatlichen Museums Schwerin, siehe: Marcel Duchamp, Cantz: Ostfildern, 2003 (bearbeitet von Gerhard Graulich, Kornelia von Berswordt-Wallrabe, Markus Dauss, Sabine Fett, Kornelia Röder, etc.

Das von der Künstlerin Rhonda Roland Shearer und dem Harvardprofessor Stephen Jay Gould 1998
begründete, gemeinnützige Art Science Research Laboratory (ASRL), New York, verfügt über die weltweit grösste Privatsammlung der Werke Marcel Duchamps. Ausgehend von seinen Notizen und Interviews, Duchamps Lektüre des französischen Mathematikers Henri Poincaré(1) sowie von der Wissenschaftstheoretie zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts und Überlegungen zur vierten Dimension, versuchen Shearer und Gould unter anderem die Non-Existenz der meist nur noch auf alten Photographien erhaltenen, originalen Readymades als Massenprodukte nachzuweisen,(2) Objekte, die sich erheblich von den späteren, allgemein bekannten Editionen unterscheiden.(3) Neben den Werken Marcel Duchamps liegt daher der Ausstellungs- und Sammelschwerpunkt von ASRL bei der Präsentation (im Sinne einer prä-musealen Wunderkammer) bzw. Archivierung von Firmen- und Versandhauskatalogen, Pissoirs, Kleiderhaken Schneeschaufeln, Vogelkäfigen und vielen weiteren Gebrauchsgegenständen, sofern diese Ähnlichkeit mit Duchamps Readymades aufweisen und in der Zeit ihrer Entstehung hergestellt wurden.

Ein rein kunsttheoretischer Ansatz wird dabei durch die intensive Arbeit am Objekt erweitert, oft unter Miteinbeziehung von bzw. der Kollaboration mit u.a. Physikern, Mathematikern, Dermatologen und Ex-Fotospezialisten des CIA. Im ASRL arbeiten Kunsthistoriker Seite an Seite mit 3D-Graphikern und Webdesignern, die ihrerseits sowohl deren Ergebnisse graphisch umsetzen und online publizieren helfen als auch Duchamps Werke im Computer einer genauen Analyse unterziehen.

Seit Dezember 1999 erscheint mit ASRLs non-profit “Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal”(www.toutfait.com) die erste interdisziplinäre Multimedia-Zeitschrift zu einem Künstler der Moderne und seinem Umfeld. Neben Artikeln von international renommierten Kunsthistorikern und Duchampforschern sowie Studenten und Künstlern werden schwer zugängliche Quellentexte veröffentlicht, bedeutende Sammlungen vorgestellt sowie auf aktuelle Ereignisse verwiesen. In den ersten vier Ausgaben publizierte “Tout-Fait” weit über 100 Beitrage, ausschliesslich Erstveröffentlichungen und viele davon zweisprachig. Im folgenden werden neue Forschungsergebnisse zu drei in der Schweriner Sammlung befindlichen Werke Duchamps vorgestellt.

Kamm, 1916/1964

click to enlarge
Kamm
Abb. 1
Marcel Duchamp, Kamm, 1916

“3 oder 4 Höhentropfen haben nichts zu tun mit der Wildheit – Feb. 17 1916 11 Uhr vormittags”.(4) Die Inschrift auf dem Rücken des Kamms von 1916 (Abb. 1) gibt das genaue Datum und die Uhrzeit an, so wie es Duchamp in einer Notiz über die Readymades in der “Grünen Schachtel” von 1934 festgelegt hat. “Datum, Stunde, Minute, natürlich auf dem Readymade eintragen, als Information”.(5) Was Duchamp hier beabsichtigt, ist “eine Art Rendezvous”: Um jegliches ästhetische Urteil bei der Auswahl zu vermeiden, beabsichtigt er, die Readymades zu “präzisieren”, indem er sie “vormerkt”. Was für ein Gegenstand auch immer sich “mit genügender Frist”(6) zur vorgegebenen Zeit in Duchamps Nähe einfindet, wird zum Readymade erklärt und dementsprechend beschriftet.

Keine zwei Wochen zuvor, am 6. Februar 1916, schickt Duchamp einen wenig Sinn ergebenden, auf vier Postkarten getippten Schreibmaschinentext an das Sammlerehepaar Walter und Louise Arensberg. Auf der Rückseite hat er den Titel vermerkt: “Rendezvous vom Sonntag 6. Februar 1916 um 1 Uhr ¾ Nachmittags”. “Kamm” wie “Rendezvous”, in ihrer Entstehung nur elf Tage auseinanderliegend, scheinen sich penibel genau an Duchamps zwischen 1911-1915 entstandene Readymade-Notiz zu halten. Von den 100 Fragen, die Serge Stauffer von Zürich aus am 24. Juli 1960 an Marcel Duchamp im spanischen Cadaques schickt, befasst sich Frage 39 mit dem Schreibmaschinentext für die Arensbergs. Stauffer muss davon ausgehen, dass es sich hier um ein Readymade handelt: “Auf welche Art haben Sie den Text für ‘Rendezvous vom 6. Februar 1916’ gefunden?”(7) Die Antwort Duchamps vom 6. August 1960 fällt so knapp wie überraschend aus: “Ich habe ihn nicht gefunden – sondern geflissentlich gemacht während mehrerer Wochen” (8).

Dem gegenüber wird Duchamps “Kamm” auch weit mehr als 80 Jahre nach seiner Entstehung als reines Readymade klassifiziert(9), dass einzige, das im Original erhalten blieb und im Philadelphia Museum of Art ausgestellt ist. Dieser Ur-Kamm unterscheidet sich erheblich – wenn auch nicht auf den ersten Blick – von der Reproduktion aus dem Jahr 1964 (Abb. 2). Denn vergleicht man die Anzahl der Zähne des Kamms von 1916 mit den im Rahmen der Readymade-Edition von Marcel Duchamp und dem Mailänder Galeristen Arturo Schwarz entstandenen Kämmen, so stellt man fest, das ersterer über 55 bzw. 57 Zähne verfügt, die Edition dagegen nur über 53 bzw. 55 Zähne(10). “Die Kämme ordnen nach der Anzahl ihrer Zähne”(11), schrieb Marcel Duchamp in seinen 1934 publizierten Notizen in der “Grünen Schachtel”. Auf weiteren, erst posthum veröffentlichten Zetteln, weist er in seinen Bemerkungen zum Inframince mehrmals auf die feinen Unterschiede von nur scheinbar identisch aussehenden Objekten hin, selbst dann, wenn diese aus der gleichen Gussform stammen(12). Was der Stahlkamm von 1916 und die Edition von 1964 tatsächlich gemeinsam haben, das ist neben dem Material die Inschrift “Chas F. Bingler / 166 – 6th Ave. N.Y.” sowie zwei zu den Aussenrändern parallel liegende Aussparungen auf der Breitseite des Objekts. Die beiden kreisrunden Löcher weisen das Readymade aber als Assisted Readymade bzw. Semi-Readymade aus, da es Teil eines grösseren Gebrauchsgegenstands gewesen sein muss. Entweder die Löcher dienten Schrauben, die den Kamm über eine Metallschiene an einem Holzgriff befestigten(13)(Abb. 3)oder sie waren für zwei dünne Metallstäbe vorgesehen, die ihrerseits zwischen drei und sechs gleichartige Kämme zusammenhielten und ebenfalls in einen Griff mündeten (Abb. 4a und 4b). In beiden Fällen kann man kaum mehr von einem Hundekamm sprechen (14). In den damaligen Warenhauskatalogen wurden diese Modelle unter “Cattle Comb” bzw. “Curry Comb” geführt und in ihrer Nutzung ausschliesslich zum Striegeln von Pferden oder zum Auskämmen von Rinderfell angeboten.

click to enlarge  

  • Kamm
    Abb.2
    Marcel Duchamp, Kamm, 1964
  • Cattle Comb
    Abb. 3
    Modell eines “Cattle Comb”,
    aus: Hardware World,
    November 15, 1920, S. 184 (Detail)

 

click to enlarge  

  • Wholesale Hardware
  • Curry Comb
    Abb. 4B

 


Abb. 4A
Verschiedene Modelle eines “Curry Comb”, aus: Wholesale Hardware
and Associate Lines
, New York, Nashville: H.G. Lipscomb &
Company [Warenkatalog], 1913 [Achtung: fuer Abb. 4
ebf. ein Detail zur Auswahl]

Bezüglich der Inschrift des Kamms, “Chas F. Bingler / 166 – 6th Ave. N.Y.”, lässt sich feststellen, dass bis 1915 unter der angegebenen Adresse tatsächlich ein gleichnamiger Messerschmied (“Cutler”) in Manhattan zu finden war, der uns ein Jahr später laut New Yorker Telefonbuch als Charles F. Bingler, “Cutler and Grinder, Importer and Manufacturer of Cutlery” wieder begegnet, mit nur leicht veränderter Adresse: 182, 6th Avenue. (15) Das Problem ist nur, dass Melvin J. Bingler, einziger Sohn von Chas F. Bingler, ganz und gar nicht davon ausgeht, dass das Geschäft seines Vaters jemals Kämme herstellen liess. (16) Bingler war vor allem für seine Rasiermesser bekannt (17) und stellte ausserdem Scheren, Messer und Schreinerwerkzeug her. Von Chas F. Bingler konnten Privatkunden zudem jederzeit Produkte individuell anfertigen lassen, was sich sowohl der überschaubaren Grösse des Betriebes sowie der Tatsache, dass Produkte nie in allzu hoher Anzahl hergestellt wurden, verdankt.

James Joyce soll im Scherz über Duchamps “Kamm” gesagt haben, dass seine dicken Zähne “Finnegans Wake”, den hochkomplizierten Nachtroman des irischen Schriftstellers, zu entwirren vermögen. (18) Die vielen Fragen, die der Kamm von 1916 bei genauerem Hinsehen aufwirft, können bei allen verbleibenden Ungereimtheiten zumindest determinieren, auf welche Weise und mit wieviel Vorsicht bei der Untersuchung weiterer Objekte aus Duchamp’s Oeuvre vorgegangen werden sollte. (19)

Pariser Luft (50 cc), 1919/1964(20)

Im Januar 1968 teilt Salvador Dalí in seiner gewohnt hyperbolischen Schreibweise mit, dass “Duchamp König sein könnte, wenn er anstatt der ‘Schokoladenreibe’ eine ‘Heilige Ampulle’ hergestellt hätte, das einzigartige, göttliche Readymade, um sich selber damit zu salben. Duchamp hätte dann in Rheims gekrönt werden können.” (21) Seitdem der heidnische Begründer des Frankenreiches, Clovis I., aufgrund der vereinten Kräfte seiner Frau und des Bischofs zum Christentum übertrat und schliesslich um 500 n. Chr. in Reims zum König geweiht wurde, war die “Heilige Ampulle” fester Bestandteil der Krönungszeremonie in Frankreich. (22) Ursprünglich in Form einer kleinen, bauchigen Phiole mit gestrecktem Hals, gestaltete sich das Aussehen der “Heiligen Ampulle” ab dem 16. Jahrhundert abwechslungsreicher. (23) Im Musée des Antiquités von Rouen – der Stadt, in der Duchamp zur Schule ging, seine Eltern bis 1925 wohnten und er 1968 im Familiengrab beigesetzt wurde – befinden sich zwei kleine solcher Flakons (Abb. 5), die im 18. Jahrhundert zum Bewahren von Weihwasser hergestellt worden sind und Duchamps der gängigen Überlieferung nach in einer Pariser Apotheke für “Pariser Luft” (Abb. 6) erworbenem Glasbehältnis weitaus ähnlicher sehen als jedweder um 1919 hergestellte pharmazeutische Gegenstand.(24) Übrigens nicht nur die “Heilige Ampulle” wurde bei Krönungszeremonien eingesetzt. Duchamps beschrifteter “Kamm” von 1916 erinnert an weitere bei diesem Ritual oft verwendete Objekte: Kämme, meist aus Elfenbein bzw. “wertvollem Metall gefertigt und mit biblischen Zitaten oder anderem verziert” (Abb. 7).(25)

click to enlarge  

  • Heilige Ampullen
    Abb. 5
    Zwei “Heilige Ampullen”, ca. 1750,
    Hoehe: 35 mm (Fotografie:
    Yohann Deslandes, Musées
    Departementaux de la Seine-Maritime,
    Musée des Antiquités, Rouen, 2000)
  • Pariser Luft
    Abb. 6
    Marcel Duchamp, Pariser Luft, 1919
  • Use of the Comb in Church
Ceremonies,
    Abb. 7
    Kamm aus den roemischen
    Katakomben, aus: Henry John Frasey, “The
    Use of the Comb in Church
    Ceremonies,” in: The Antiquary
    XXXII (January/December 1896), S. 312-316, 313.

 


click to enlarge
 Pariser Luft
Abb. 8
Marcel Duchamp, Pariser
Luft
, 1964

Bleibt die Form von Duchamps “Pariser Luft” zumindest zweideutig, so enthält auch der Titel dieses Objekts, dessen Status als letztes, eigentliches Readymades Duchamp in einem Interview von 1959 bestätigt, (26) ein weiteres Rätsel. Die verschiedenen Versionen von “Pariser Luft”, entstanden zwischen 1919 und 1964 (Abb. 8), unterscheiden sich in ihrem Volumen und werden doch alle mit demselben Fassungsvermögen benannt: 50 cc. Bei einer genauen Untersuchung stellt man fest, dass keine Version tatsächlich genau die angegebenen fünfzig Kubikzentimeter Luft enthält. (27) Was vorerst als intelligenter Dada-Scherz durchgehen mag, das fügt sich in der Gesamtbetrachtung von “Pariser Luft” zu einem noch trickreicheren Ganzen. Denn auch die Existenz dieses Readymades als massenhaft produzierter Gebrauchsgegenstand muss nicht nur aufgrund der Nähe zur “Heiligen Ampulle” in Frage gestellt werden. Von seinem Frankreichaufenthalt bringt Duchamp 1919 “Pariser Luft” dem Sammlerehepaar Louise und Walter Arensberg aus Paris mit, wo ein Apotheker die mit Flüssigkeit gefüllte Ampulle aufgebrochen, geleert und wieder zugeschweisst haben soll. Zu beachten ist dabei aber, dass Apotheker zu dieser Zeit meist ausgebildete Glasbläser
waren. (28) Und als Duchamp 30 Jahre später seinen Freund Henri-Pierre Roché darum bittet, ihm aus Paris eine möglichst ähnlich aussehende Ampulle zuzusenden (während seinem Aufenthalt bei den Arensbergs in Kalifornien musste Duchamp feststellen, dass “Pariser Luft” von 1919 zerbrochen war, weswegen er Roché unmittelbar um Ersatz ersuchte), dann ist wahrscheinlich, dass Roché dieses zweite Readymade von “Pariser Luft” ebenfalls herstellen liess. (29)


click to enlarge
Weibliches Feigenblatt
Abb. 9
Marcel Duchamp, Weibliches
Feigenblatt
, 1961

Auf dem gleich unterhalb des Glashakens angebrachten Typenschild des Originals von 1919 befindet sich ausserdem vor der Bezeichnung “Sérum Physiologique” ein Asterisk: *. In der Sprachtypologie bedeutet der kleine schwarze Stern, dass es sich bei dem ihm folgenden Wort um eine erschlossene, nicht schriftlich belegte Form handelt. Zudem wird der Asterisk verwandt, um in einem gegebenen Kontext Wörter zu unterscheiden, deren Herkunft bzw. Gebrauch unklar bleiben. In Duchamps posthum veröffentlichten Notizen taucht der Asterisk gleich zweimal als Wortspiel auf, als “Asstricks” (deutsch etwa “Arschtricks”), wobei sich der gesamte Titel von “Pariser Luft” ausgerechnet auf der Rückseite einer wichtigen Bemerkung zum Inframince wiederfindet. (30) Soviel der Asterisk über den Readymade-Charakter von “Pariser Luft” preisgeben mag, soviel Aufschluss können die “Asstricks” vielleicht über ein späteres Objekt Duchamps zu geben, sein “Weibliches Feigenblatt” (Abb. 9)von 1950/1961.

Weibliches Feigenblatt, 1950/1961

click to enlarge
Der Wasserfall
Abb. 10A
Das Leuchtgas
Abb. 10B


Marcel Duchamp, Gegeben sei: A. Der Wasserfall /
B. Das Leuchtgas
,1945-1966 (Innen- und Aussenansicht)

Als Marcel Duchamp erstmals sein “Weibliches Feigenblatt” 1953 in der New Yorker Rose Fried Gallery ausstellte, konnten die Rezensenten natürlich noch nicht ahnen, dass es neben drei weiteren erotischen Objekten auf die vom Künstler geheim gehaltene und erst nach seinem Tod im Philadelphia Museum of Art ab 1969 öffentlich ausgestellte Installation “Gegeben sei: 1. Der Wasserfall/ 2. Das Leuchtgas” (1945-1966) (Abb. 10A und 10B) (31)verwies. Die New York Times sprach von “bizarren Artefakten” und Arts & Decoration beschrieb das “Weibliche Feigenblatt” als “aus Gips, dreieckig [und] très femelle“. (32)Duchamp indes arbeitete zu dieser Zeit bereits an seinem letzten Hauptwerk und das “Weibliche Feigenblatt” sollte sich retrospektiv als deutlicher Hinweis auf den wichtigsten Bestandteil dieses letzten Hauptwerks herausstellen: die markant entblösste, kahlrasierte wie geöffnete weibliche Scham als zentraler und am hellsten ausgeleuchteter Fluchtpunkt von “Gegeben sei…”.


click to enlarge
Weibliches Feigenblatt
Abb. 11
Marcel Duchamp, Weibliches
Feigenblatt
, 1961 (Computergraphik
von Yong Duk Jhun/ASRL, 2000)

Aber ist das “Weibliche Feigenblatt” tatsächlich als positiver Gipsabdruck der Vulva des weiblichen Torso von “Gegeben sei…” bzw. als Abdruck eines lebenden Modells anzusehen, wie das Francis M. Naumann in seiner Besprechung des Werks wiederholt aufführt? (33) Dieser Auffassung läuft allemal die Eintragung zum “Weiblichen Feigenblatt” in Richard Hamiltons Katalog zur grossen Duchamp-Retrospektive von 1966 in der Londoner Tate Gallery entgegen: “[E]in enigmatisches Objekt, scheinbar ein Abdruck der weiblichen Scham, tatsächlich aber handgefertigt.” (34) Des weiteren hat Thomas Zaunschirm schon 1983 Zweifel bezüglich der anatomischen Korrektheit des “Weiblichen Feigenblatts” angemeldet. (35) Bei soviel kursierender Unklarheit konnte im Sommer 2000 bei zahlreichen Versuchen des Art Science Research Laboratory mit Gipsabdrücken weiblicher Geschlechter (36) zu folgendem, verblüffendem Ergebnis gelangt werden (37) : Das ASRL in Form der 1961 gefertigten Bronzeversion vorliegenden “Weibliche Feigenblatt” ist geschlechtsspezifisch nicht eindeutig zuzuordnen. Die Ausbuchtung der in der Mitte des Objekts vertikal verlaufenden Linie stellt einzig das Perineum dar, also den zwischen unterem Vulvaansatz (bei der Frau) bzw. Skrotum (beim Mann) und After befindlichem Damm (Abb. 11). Dass Duchamp bei seinem “asstrick” mit den Geschlechtern spielt mag bei einem bis ins Mark ambivalenten Künstler nicht verwundern, der die Mona Lisa mit Oberlippen- und Kinnbärtchen versieht (“L.H.O.O.Q.”, 1919), über Jahre ein weibliches Alter Ego namens “Rrose Sélavy” für seine Werke verantwortlich zeichnen und sich wiederholt in Frauenkleidern ablichten lässt (1920, 1921). Bei der fortschreitenden Entschlüsselung von “Gegeben sei…” und den sich auf dieses Werk beziehenden Arbeiten und Notizen darf bis hin zum Torso seiner letzten Installation aller Voraussicht nach mit weiteren androgynen Überraschungen gerechnet werden.


Notes

Footnote Return[1] Zu diesem Themenkomplex fand Ende 1999 ein von ASRL organisiertes, dreitägiges Symposium an der Harvard University statt, “Methods of Understanding in Art and Science: The Case of Marcel Duchamp and Henri Poincaré”, 5.-7. November 1999.

Footnote Return[2] In Europa bleibt diese Hypyhese weniger umstritten als in den USA. Der Kunsthistoriker Thomas Zaunschirm meldete schon in seiner 1983-1986 erschienenen Buchtrilogie zu Duchamp Zweifel an (siehe v.a sein “Bereites Mädchen Readymade”, Klagenfurt: Ritter, 1986) .”[D]ass es sich bei Duchamps Readymades um individüll geformte Objekte handelt”, hält auch die deutsche Kunsthistorikerin Monika Wagner nach einem Besuch bei ASRL im Oktober 1999 durchaus “für möglich” (siehe Monika Wagner, “Das Material der Kunst: Eine andere Geschichte der Moderne”, München: C.H. Beck, 2001, S. 305, FN 38). Und für Jean Clair, den Duchampexperten und Direktor des Pariser Musée Picasso, war es Shearer, die mit ihrer Forschung seine ehemalige “Leidenschaft für Duchamp wieder neu entfacht hat” (persönliche Widmung in: Jean Clair, “Sur Marcel Duchamp et la Fin de l’Art”, Paris: Gallimard, 2000, Archiv ASRL).

Footnote Return[3] Seit 1997 sind in der internationalen Presse eine grosse Anzahl von Artikeln über ASRL erschienen (u.a. in Artnews, New York Times, SZ-Magazin), sowie Dutzende Beiträge von Mitarbeitern des ASRL, u.a in Science,Nature und Science News. Für eine bibliographische Auswahl der Titel, siehe<https://www.asrlab.org/articles/why_bicycle_wheel.htm>

Footnote Return[4] Die Übersetzung aus dem Französischen aus: Serge Stauffer, “Marcel Duchamp: Die Schriften”, Zürich: Theo Ruff, 1994 (1981), S. 191.

Footnote Return[5] Ibid., S. 100.

Footnote Return[6] Ibid.

Footnote Return[7] Ibid. S. 283.

Footnote Return[8] Ibid.

Footnote Return[9] “Ready made” ist der Titel, mit dem Duchamp den “Kamm” in seiner ab 1941 gefertigten “Schachtel-im-Koffer” benennt. Zum Teil auf Duchamps eigenen Klassifizierungen beruhend, unterscheidet Francis M. Naumann im Glossary zu seinem Buch “Marcel Duchamp: The Art of Making Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” (Ludion/Abrams: Ghent/New York, 1999) zwischen insgesamt sechs Typen von Readymades: “assisted readymade, imitated rectified readymade, printed readymade, readymade (or ready-made), rectified readymade, semi-readymade” (S. 298-299).

Footnote Return[10] Die verschiedene Zählweise ergibt sich aus der Möglichkeit, die zwei breiteren, gebogenen Abschlusszapfen des Kamms am linken und rechten Ende den eigentlichen “Zähnen” hinzuzurechnen oder nicht. So oder so, der Unterschied zwischen der Anzahl der Zähne des Originalkamms und den Kämmen aus der späteren Edition (sowie dem signierten, von Ulf Linde 1963 für das Moderna Museet in Stockholm angefertigten Kamm) bleibt stets Zwei.

Footnote Return[11] Stauffer, “Schriften”, S. 99.

Footnote Return[12] Siehe Notizen 18 und 35 in Paul Matisse (Hrsg.), “Marcel Duchamp, Notes”, Centre Georges Pompidou, 1980, o. S. Notizen 1-46 fassen Duchamps Gedanken zum “Inframince” bzw “Infradünnen” zusammen und sind für eine Theorie der Readymades unerlässlich.

Footnote Return[13] Siehe Kirk Varnedoe, Adam Gopnik (Hrsg.), “High & Low: Modern Culture and Popular Art”, New York: Abrams, 1990, Ausst.-Kat. (The Museum of Modern Art), S. 274, Abb. 76.

Footnote Return[14] In einem Vortrag vom 24. November 1964 im City Art Museum of St. Louis, Missouri, spricht Duchamp ausdrücklich von einem Hundekamm; siehe Stauffer, “Schriften”, S. 243.

Footnote Return[15] Molly Nesbit und Naomi Sawelson-Gorse haben in ihrem Aufsatz “Concept of Nothing: New Notes by Marcel Duchamp and Walter Arensberg” (in: Martha Buskirk, Mignon Nixon (Hrsg.), “The Duchamp Effect: Essays, Interviews, Roundtable”, MIT: October, 1996, S. 131-176) zürst auf die historische Authentizität Chas F. Binglers hingewiesen (siehe v.a. die Fussnoten 44 und 45, S. 151, 152). Ich beziehe mich hier auf die Eintragungen im “New York City Directory 1915 (A-M)”, NY:NYPL (Microfilm Zan G 67, reel 64), S. 332 sowie im “New York City Directory 1916 (A-M)”, NY: NYPL (Microfilm Zan – 67, reel 68), S. 272.

Footnote Return[16] Diese und die folgenden Aussagen beruhen auf einem Telefongespräch mit Melvin J. Bingler (Getzville, New York), 7. April 2000.

Footnote Return[17] Die Sammlung des Art Science Research Laboratory, New York, verfügt über ein Rasiermesser mit dem Aufdruck “Chas F. Bingler” (der Firmenname ist ebf. auf dem Etui vermerkt).

Footnote Return[18] Als Duchamp 1937 den Umschlag der Zeitschrift “Transition” (New York, Winter 1937, Nr. 26) mit einer Abbildung des “Kamms” versah, hat Joyce sich laut seiner Verlegerin Sylvia Beach ihr gegenüber dementsprechend geäussert (vgl. Arturo Schwarz, “The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp”, New York: Delano Greenidge, 1999, S. 744).

Footnote Return[19] Nur in den ersten zwei Auflagen seines Werkverzeichnisses, “The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp” (New York: Abrams, 1969, 1970), geht Arturo Schwarz in seiner Eintragung zum “Kamm” auf eine weitere Notiz Duchamps aus der “Grünen Schachtel” ein, die mit “Sept. 1915” unterschrieben ist und damit dem Bingler-Objekt nur fünf Monate vorausgeht. In dieser Notiz erwähnt Duchamp einen Kamm mit abgebrochenen Zähnen, der die Möglichkeit birgt, als “proportionale Kontrolle” (S. 461 [meine Übersetzung], von Stauffer aus dem Französischen als “proportionale Leitung” übersetzt; siehe “Schriften”, S. 99) – und im folgenden paraphrasiert Schwarz den übrigen Teil der Notiz – “für andere Objekte bzw. als Ausgangspunkt für andere Schöpfungen” (S. 461 [meine Übersetzung] genutzt zu werden.

Footnote Return[20] Die folgenden Beobachtungen zu “Pariser Luft” fassen einige der zuerst im Dezember 1999 in “Tout-Fait” veröffentlichten Ergebnisse zusammen; siehe Thomas Girst und Rhonda Roland Shearer, “‘Paris Air’ or ‘Holy Ampule’?”, in: “Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal” 1, 1 Articles (December 1999) <https://www.toutfait.com/issues/issue_1/Articles/ampul.html>

Footnote Return[21] “L’Échecs, C’est Moi”, in” Pierre Cabanne, “Dialogues with Marcel Duchamp”, New York: Da Capo, 1987, S. 13-14 [meine Übersetzung]. Schon in seinem Gemälde von 1965 – Salvador Dalí in the Act of Painting Gala in the Apotheosis of the Dollar, in which One may also Perceive to the Left Marcel Duchamp Disguised as Louis XIV, behind a Curtain in the Style of Vermeer, which is but the Invisible Monument Face of the Hermes of Praxiteles– hat Dalí Duchamp als französicshen Sonnenkönig dargestellt. Duchamp selbst spielte 1957 in Hans Richters Film “8×8” einen schwarzen König und trug anlässlich der Feierlichkeiten zu seinem 70. Geburtstag eine grosse Krone auf dem Kopf. Mindestens drei frühe Werke Duchamps (alle von 1912) tragen,vom Schachspiel ausgehend, das Wort “König” im Titel.

Footnote Return[22] Zur Geschichte und Legende der “Heiligen Ampulle” siehe Patrick Demouy, “Du Baptême du Sacre”, in: “Connaissance des Arts” 92 (1996), S. 7-9.

Footnote Return[23] Siehe Jacqueline Bellanger, “Verre: D’Usage et de Prestige. France 1500-1800”, (Paris: Éditions de l’Amateur, 1988); Etienne Michon, “La Collection d’Ampoules à Eulogies du Musée du Louvre,” Mélang. Archeol. Hist. 12 (Rome, 1892), S. 183-201. Diese Quellen verdanke ich den Hinweisen von Virginia Wright and Rosalind S. Young, Corning Museum of Glass, New York.

Footnote Return[24] Laurence Flavigny, Konservatorin am Musée des Antiquités, Rouen, konnte keine Auskunft darüber geben, seit wann die Phiolen Bestandteil in der Sammlung des Museums sind. Rhonda Roland Shearer hat schon früh auf die materielle Unmöglichkeit eines medizinischen Infusionsbehältnisses mit Glashaken hingewiesen; siehe Rhonda Roland Shearer’s “Marcel Duchamp’s Impossible Bed and Other ‘Not’ Readymade Objects: A Possible Route of Influence From Art to Science”, Part 1, in: “Art & Academe” 10, 1 (Fall 1997), S. 26-62. Dem widerspricht Dr. Tobias Else, Hamburg, in seinem Leserbrief an “Tout-Fait”: siehe “‘Infusion Ball’ or ‘Holy Ampule'”? Tobias Else responds to ‘Paris Air or ‘Holy Ampule?’ (with a reply by Rhonda Roland Shearer)”, in: “Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal” 1, 2 Letters (May 2000) < https://www.toutfait.com/issues/issue_2/Letters/else.html.Else zeigt auf, dass vor allem ein von Maurice Boureau 1898 entwickelter “Infusionsball” aus Glas Duchamps “Pariser Luft” sehr ähnlich ist, und gleichfalls, wie auf Duchamps Typenschild ausgezeichnet, “Sérum Physiologique” enthielt, die Bezeichnung für eine einfache Sodium-Chlorid-Lösung. Die grosse, im Art Science Research Laboratory, befindliche Sammlung pharmazeutischer Glasampullen beherbergt kein Duchamps “Pariser Luft” entfernt ähnliches Objekt, deren Existenz gleichfalls von Prof. Gregory Higby, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin, ebenso vehement bestritten wird (aufgezeichnete Telefonnachricht vom Sommer 1998, Archiv ASRL).

Footnote Return[25] Henry John Frasey, “The Use of the Comb in Church Ceremonies,” in: “The Antiquary” XXXII (January/December 1896), S. 314, 312-316.

Footnote Return[26] siehe Serge Stauffer (Hrsg.), “Marcel Duchamp: Interviews und Statements”, Graphische Sammlung Staatsgalerie Stuttgart/Edition Cantz, 1992, S. 75.

Footnote Return[27] Die im November 1999 im Art Science Research Laboratory durchgeführten Tests ergaben für die Schwarz Edition von “Pariser Luft” aus dem Jahr 1964 ein Volumen von 123 cc; für die insgesamt etwa 300 Miniaturversion der verschiedenen “Schachteln” sowie der “Schachtel-im-Koffer” wurden 35 cc festgestellt. Die “Pariser Luft” von 1949 und jene von 1963 wirken etwas kleiner als das Original von 1919, dass gleichfalls einen voluminöseren Bauch als die Edition von 1964 aufweist (an diesen drei Versionen konnten keine Messungen vorgenoimmen werden).

Footnote Return[28] siehe Fax von Virginia Wright, Corning Museum of Glass, New York, 27. April 1998 (Archiv ASRL); ebenso W.A. Shenstone, “The Methods of Glass Blowing and of Working Silica in the Oxy-Gas Flame”, London: Longman’s, 1916, S. 7; hier wird ein ein Gasbrenner für kleine Arbeitsräume aufgeführt (ähnliche Bücher waren in Frankreich zu dieser Zeit wohlbekannt).

Footnote Return[29] siehe Duchamps Brief vom 9. Mai 1949 an Roché, in: William Camfield, “Marcel Duchamp: Fountain”, Houston: Houston Fine Arts Press, 1989, S. 76. Am 29. Mai schreibt Duchamp abermals an Roché und bittet ihn erneut darum, sich bzgl. “Pariser Luft” an die von ihm in seinem ersten Brief angegebene Grösse (125 cc) zu halten, da Roché ihm zwischenzeitlich empfohlen zu haben scheint, doch einfach eine Miniaturversion aus der “Schachtel” zu verwenden (siehe Ecke Bonk, “Marcel Duchamp: The Box-in-a-Valise”, New York: Rizzoli, 1989, S. 202). Wahrscheinlicher, als dass Roché nach vorerst vergeblicher Suche und drei Jahrzehnte später in Paris eine der (als Massenprodukt womöglich non-existente) Version von 1919 ähnliche Ampulle für “Pariser Luft” aufzutreiben vermag, ist die Möglichkeit, dass Roché die “Pariser Luft” von 1949 bei der Glasbläserei Obled herstellen liess. Diese befand sich unweit von Duchamps Atelier und war bei der Herstellung der Miniaturversionen von “Pariser Luft” für die “Schachtel” involviert (Ibid.).

Footnote Return[30] Siehe “Marcel Duchamp, Notes”, 1980, Notizen 217 und 235; auf dem Verso von Notiz 32 befindet sich die Notiz “50 cent. cubes d’air de Paris” (im Buch nicht reproduziert). Zu Duchamps Wortspiel “Asstricks” fällt André Gervais in seinem “La raie alitée d’effets: Apropos of Marcel Duchamp”, Québec: Hurtubise, 1984, S. 242, folgendes ein: “asstricks: tours du cul, arse et attrapes, trucs cul(s) lent(s), etc.” In einer e-mail an den Autor vom 6. Dezember 1999 weist Gervais auf die vielen Asteriske in einem anderen Werk Duchamps hin, der Manuskriptseite “The” von 1915.

Footnote Return[31] Zur Vordatierung von Duchamps aktiver Arbeit an “Gegeben sei…” um ein Jahr, siehe Thomas Girst, “Duchamp’s Window Display forAndré Breton’s Le Surréalisme et la Peinture (1945), in: “Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal 2, 4 Articles (January 2002)

Footnote Return[32] “Marcel Duchamp/Francis Picabia”, Rose Fried Gallery, NY, 7. Dezember, 1953 – 8. Januar 1954; bzgl. der Rezensionen siehe Stuart Preston, “Diverse Facets: Moderns in Wide Variety”, in: The New York Times. December 20, 1953, sect. 10, S. 11 [meine Übersetzung] sowie James Fitzsimmons, “Art”, in: Arts & Decoration, February 1953, S. 31 [meine Übersetzung].

Footnote Return[33] Siehe Francis M. Naumann, “The Mary and William Sisler Collection”, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1984, S. 214 sowie Naumann, “Marcel Duchamp: The Art of Making Art”, S. 171.

Footnote Return[34] Siehe Ausst.-Kat. “The Almost Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp” (Tate Gallery, London, 18. Juni – 31 Juli 1966), S. 10 [meine Übersetzung]. In einem Telefongespräch mit dem Autor vom 29. Juni 1999 bestätigte Richard Hamilton erneut seine Feststellung von 1966: In einer Unterredung zwischen Hamilton und Duchamp habe sich der Künstler darüber gewundert, wie man davon ausgehen könne, dass er eine Frau der Prozedur eines solchen Abdrucks unterziehen würde und machte mit seinen Daumen und Zeigefinger eine modellierende Geste, um Hamilton zu erklären, wie “Weibliches Feigenblatt” tatsächlich entstanden sei.

Footnote Return[35] Siehe Thomas Zaunschirm, “Marcel Duchamps Unbekanntes Meisterwerk”, Klagenfurt: Ritter, 1986, S. 138 (mit der Abbildung des Gipsabdrucks eines weiblichen Geschlechts: “Bisherige Interpretationen haben kritiklos Duchamps Angaben übernommen, doch selbst dabei bleibt das meiste rätselhaft”.

Footnote Return[36] Hierfür stellten sich im v.a. die jungen amerikanischen Collegestudentinnen Tracy Berglund und ihre Freundin Nancy Hankins bereitwillig zur Verfügung.

Footnote Return[37] Im folgenden fasse ich u.a. die Ergebnisse von ASRL und Rhonda Roland Shearer zusammen, die erstmalig am 21. November 2000 bei Shearers Vortrag “This is Not a Vulva Mold (and Other Discoveries Regarding How and Why Duchamp’s Readymades Are Not Readymades)” im Bard College, Annendale-on-Hudson, NY, präsentiert wurden.

Abb. 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10A, 10B, 11 ©2003 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

Duchamp’s Perspective: The Intersection of Art and Geometry


click to enlarge
Three Standard Stoppages
Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp, Three Standard Stoppages, 1913

Marcel Duchamp’s readymade, but “not quite,” as he called the Three Standard Stoppages(Fig. 1), is a highly ramified work of art.(1)The pieces of string used in its construction are related to sight lines and to vanishing points. In addition to their ostensive references to perspective and projective geometry, the Stoppages allude to happenstance. They are perhaps the artist’s best known work that incorporates uncertain outcomes into its operation. (In one of his Green Box notes, Duchamp says that the Stoppages are “canned chance.”)(2) To make the work, he glued three pieces of string to three narrow canvases painted solid Prussian blue. (Each string had a different randomly generated curvature.) He then cut three wooden templates to match the shapes of these “diminished meters.”(3)


click still images to enlarge
Network of Stoppages
Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp, Network of Stoppages, 1914
 Bride Stripped Bare
by Her Bachelors
Figure 3
Marcel Duchamp, Bride Stripped Bare
by Her Bachelors, Even
, 1915-23

As this description indicates, the piece was quite unusual physically, and it was conceptually unprecedented. In terms of his personal development, Duchamp said the work had been crucial: “… it opened the way–the way to escape from those traditional methods of expression long associated with art. …For me the Three Standard Stoppages was a first gesture liberating me from the past.”(4)
Duchamp used the Stoppages to design the pattern of lines in his painting Network of Stoppages (Fig. 2) and then, after rendering this plan view in perspective, transferred it to The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even (Fig. 3). In the Large Glass, as the Bride Stripped Bare . . . is also known, the “network” comprises the “capillary tubes,” iconographical elements that connect the “nine malic molds.”(5) The Three Standard Stoppages, the Network of Stoppages, and the Large Glass are associated with one another through geometrical projection and section. Duchamp’s approach, with respect to establishing their mutual relationships, is complex. He not only redrew the Network
of Stoppages
in perspective so that he could incorporate the scheme into the imagery of the Glass, he also recast physical counterparts of the Stoppages into the actual structure of the Glass: the
three plates used in the Three Standard Stoppages are conceptually related to the three narrow sections of glass used to construct the “garments” of the Bride (Fig. 4). In each work, two plates
are in green glass, and one is in white glass.(6) The strips of glass at the horizon line of the Large Glass are seen edge-on, an arrangement comparable to looking down into the box of the Three
Standard Stoppages
with the sheets of glass inserted into their slots. To my knowledge, this relationship was first pointed out by Ulf Linde:

The Bride’s Clothes are to be found on the horizon–the line that governs the Bachelor Apparatus’ perspective and which is in the far distance. Thus, the Clothes seem to be the source of the waterfall. Moreover, the Clothes are undoubtedly the hiding-place
of the Standard Stoppages, as well. For this part, as it is executed on the Glass, looks exactly like the glass plates as they appear set in the croquet case–as if the Clothes simply repeated the three glass plates in profile. One might say that it is the three threads that set the Chariot in motion.(7)


click still images to enlarge
Garments of the Bride
Figure 4
Marcel Duchamp, Bride Stripped
Bare by Her Bachelors, Even
(Detail:The “garments”
of the Bride), 1915-23
Chocolate Grinder
Figure 5
Marcel Duchamp,Chocolate
Grinder, No. 2
, 1914

Although some of what Linde says here is unclear, at least to me, it is nonetheless suggestive, especially his proposition that the Stoppages are hidden in the Bride’s clothing. Duchamp’s use of different colored glass in just the same way in both applications (and the colors are more apparent when the glass plates are seen edge-on) indicates that he somehow meant for the Stoppages and the Bride’s “garments” to be linked together. I believe that their most important affiliation is perspectival: the vanishing point at the horizon line of the Glass is tied to the “garments” through geometry.

In a note from the Box of 1914 that was subsequently republished in the Green Box, Duchamp explains that pieces of string one meter long were to be dropped from a height of one meter, twisting “as they pleased” during their fall. The chance-generated curvatures would create “new
configurations of the unit of length.”(8) Although we do not know exactly how he constructed the work, we do know that he almost certainly did not use this method. The ends of the pieces of string in the Stoppages are sewn through the surfaces of the canvases and are attached to them from behind.(9) Presumably, Duchamp sewed down the strings, leaving them somewhat loose, jiggled and jostled them back and forth until he obtained three interesting curves, and then glued the segments to the canvases using varnish. Sewing would not have been out of keeping with his general working methods, especially since he was also at this time (1914) sewing thread to his painting Chocolate Grinder, No. 2 (Fig. 5)

Duchamp wanted to relate his various works to each other. The moving segments of thread in the Three Standard Stoppages are conceptually similar to the moving lines and shapes in his cubo-futurist paintings. They are also conceptually similar to the parallel lines on the drums of the “chocolate grinder,” which can, in their turn, also be related to the chronophotographic sources of the earlier paintings. Chronophotography was among Duchamp’s primary interests during this period.(10) What I have in mind here can be seen by comparing Duchamp’s works with Étienne-Jules Marey’s images of moving lines Figs. 6 and 7). These kinds of time-exposure photographs not only recall such paintings as Sad Young Man on a Train (Fig. 8) and Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (Fig. 9), but also the Three Standard Stoppages and Chocolate Grinder, No. 2.(11)

click images to enlarge

  • moving lines
  • moving lines
  • Sad Young Man
on a Train
  • Figure 6
    Étienne-Jules
    Marey, Image of moving lines
  • Figure 7
    Étienne-Jules
    Marey, Image of moving lines
  • Figure 8
    Marcel Duchamp,
    Sad Young Man
    on a Train
    , 1911
Nude Descending Figure 9
Marcel Duchamp,
Nude Descending
a Staircase, No. 2
, 1912

####PAGES####

In addition to implying something being stopped, the word “stoppage” also suggests something being mended or repaired. In French, “stoppage” refers to sewing or reweaving a tear in a fabric in such a way that the tear can no longer be seen.(12) From this perspective, the individual lines in the sculpture and the network of lines in the painting can be compared with the breaks in the Large Glass. In his early monograph, Robert Lebel pointed out that the Network of Stoppages bears a strange resemblance to the pattern of fissures in the Glass, as if the painting had somehow been a preliminary study for the subsequent breakage.(13) When Duchamp put the Glass back together, or perhaps we could also say when he “rewove” it, he no doubt also noticed the fortuitous similarities. The shapes of the line segments generated by the pieces of thread were random, but they seemed planned. Likewise, the line segments caused by the Glass being smashed were determined by chance, but they also seemed necessary for its completion (or definitive incompletion).(14)
When Duchamp rebuilt the work, he was “stopping” an accidental event that had somehow made the Glass “a hundred times better.”(15) The mended cracks in the glass are not wholly invisible, but they do approach a point of disappearance–like pieces of string falling away toward some mysterious knot at infinity. Duchamp’s lines, his fractures and strands, intersect at a vanishing point in the fourth dimension, a realm that cannot be seen from our ordinary perspectives.

The Bride’s “garments” and the Three Standard Stoppages can also be discussed in terms of yet another kind of “stoppage.” Glass, as a physical substance, is an insulator, and as such is often
used to arrest or impede the flow of electrical current through circuits. Duchamp may very well have been thinking of his glass plates in these kinds of terms when he was constructing the Large Glass. (16) He also refers to the Bride’s clothing as a “cooler”:

(Develop the desire motor, consequence of the lubricious gearing.) This desire motor is the last part of the bachelor machine. Far from being in direct contact with the Bride, the desire motor is separated by an air cooler (or water). This cooler (graphically) to express the fact that the bride, instead of being merely an asensual icicle, warmly rejects (not chastely) the bachelors’ brusque offer. This cooler will be in transparent glass. Several plates of glass one above the other. In spite of this cooler, there is no discontinuity between the bachelor machine and the Bride. But the connections will be electrical and will thus express the stripping: an alternating process. Short
circuit if necessary.(17)

In addition to the terms “vêtements de la mariée” and “refroidisseur,” Duchamp uses the expression “plaques isolatrices” to describe his strips of glass. (18)

This phrase can be translated as “isolating plates” or “insulating plates.” In one of his posthumously published notes, he calls the horizontal division of the Glass a “grand isolateur,”
a “large insulator,” and explains that it should be made using “three planes five centimeters apart in transparent material (sort of thick glass) to insulate the Hanged [Pendu] from the bachelor machine.”(19)


click to enlarge
Draft Pistons
Figure 10
Marcel Duchamp,
Draft Pistons, 1914
Travelor's Folding Item
Figure 11
Marcel Duchamp,
Travelor’s Folding Item, 1916
Unbroken Large Glass
Figure 12
Photograph of
the unbroken Large Glass

Glass may play a similar exclusionary role in the workings of the Three Standard Stoppages, but in ways that are perhaps less “transparent.” While Duchamp was apparently interested in exploring a frustrated relationship between the Bride and the Bachelors, involving as it does a “short circuit,” he was also trying to “delay”  communication. Whatever talking occurs, or fails to occur, between
the separated Bride and Bachelors pertains to seeing or not seeing through words. In his notes, Duchamp explains that the Bride sends her commands to the Bachelors through the “draft pistons,”
“triple ciphers” that use a formal alphabet constructed using the Three Standard Stoppages. Because the chance-determined “draft pistons” (Fig. 10) which are deformed planes, are conceptually similar to the Stoppages, which are deformed lines, these interpretations again converge geometrically. It might also be pointed out that Duchamp’s readymade Traveler’s
Folding Item
(Fig. 11) can be taken as a next logical step in this sequence: a one-dimensional
line generating a two-dimensional surface, which in its turn, generates a three-dimensional “solid”–one that can fold up.(20) By looking somewhat further into the n-dimensional implications
of these works (from the Latin implicatio, an entwining or interweaving), we may be able to ascertain how Duchamp’s arrangements, his strings and fabrics, which seem to have topological insinuations, might actually operate. Just how do the Three Standard Stoppages disappear into the Bride’s clothing?

At some later point in the construction of Three Standard Stoppages, Duchamp cut the narrow strips of canvas from their stretchers, reducing them in size in the process, and then glued them down to thick pieces of plate glass. He probably carried out this reworking when he was repairing
the Large Glass at Katherine S. Dreier’s home in Connecticut during the spring and summer of 1936.(21) Also at this time, he probably decided to put the various components of the Three Standard Stoppages into a specially constructed wooden case that resembles a croquet box. Duchamp’s decision to amplify the Stoppages along these lines was almost certainly connected with how he was repairing the “garments” of the Bride, which had presumably been pulverized when the Glass was accidentally broken in 1927. From the photograph of the unbroken Large Glass taken at the Brooklyn Museum

(Fig. 12),

it is difficult to determine how the original “garments” were constructed, but they do not appear to have been as elaborate as the repaired strips of glass. As pointed out earlier, Duchamp must have intended for the Stoppages and the “garments” to be related to one another because he used similarly colored strips of glass and parallel edge-on arrangements in their respective reconstructions.

Did Duchamp somehow “betray” his work by not actually dropping the pieces of string when he originally made the Three Standard Stoppages or when, over twenty years later, he further modified his original conception of the piece? No more than he betrayed himself by learning to appreciate the breaks in the Large Glass, or by elaborating the Bride’s “garments” when he repaired them. Such operations are, I believe, commensurate with his general attitudes about such matters.(22) Recall his statement to Katherine Kuh: “the idea of letting a piece of thread fall on a canvas was accidental, but from this accident came a carefully planned work. Most important was accepting and recognizing this accidental stimulation. Many of my highly organized works were initially suggested by just such chance encounters”(23)

Dropping pieces of string was not a rule that Duchamp had to follow, but rather a point of departure in his thinking, just as the damage to the Glass wound up inspiring his admiration.(24)
His artistic approach was analogous to scientists establishing hypotheses at the beginning of a research program, but then modifying their hypotheses once work has been carried out in the laboratory. Over the course of time, Duchamp’s examples of “hasard en conserve” (25)were supplied with controls that had not been deemed necessary in the beginning. As with the chance breakage he preserved in the Large Glass, the important thing was recognizing the accidental stimulation. Moreover, by allowing the pieces of thread to do more than simply fall upon the canvas surfaces by actually sewing them through to the other side, Duchamp could emphasize the notion that they had intersected the canvases. The encounter involved both chance and mathematics.

In works such as the Three Standard Stoppages, Duchamp creates physical analogues for the abstract concept of “intersection”: the one-dimensional pieces of string, the curved line segments, intersect the two-dimensional surfaces of the canvases (and they literally share points in common where they are sewn together). The strings are thus further implicated (I am tempted to say intertwined), along geometrical lines, with the fabric of the canvas strips. The cracks in the Glass are also a fundamental part of it. They are “inside” the broken sheets of glass, which are, in their turn, encased inside the heavy panes of glass that Duchamp used to effect their repair. In an analogous way, the ends of the strings in the Stoppages are sandwiched between the strips of canvas and the rectangles of glass that back them.

Duchamp’s works on glass are flat, but they are nonetheless rather thick. They are “spaces” that can be thought of, especially in this context, as rectangular solids. Because the sheets of glass themselves have thickness, a depth that is often layered, they can be taken as three-dimensional sections out of higher-dimensional continua. When, for example, all the configurations of the Stoppages (the strings, the templates, and the plates of glass) are considered together, their n-dimensional implications are manifest. They are one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional, and they have n-dimensional possibilities. Each configuration is related to the others through projection and intersection: the lines can be taken as slices out of surfaces, the surfaces as slices out of solids, and the solids as slices out of hypersolids. Esprit Pascal Jouffret, one of Duchamp’s most important mathematical sources, characterized such cuts as “infinitely thin layers.” (26)

Duchamp’s approach–moving from lines to surfaces, and from spaces to hyperspaces–is couched in terms of perspective. He considers how vanishing points and changing points of view would operate in 2-space, 3-space, 4-space, or any given n-space. He suggests using “transparent glass” and “mirror” as analogues of four-dimensional perspective systems (analogues because such systems cannot actually be constructed in three-dimensional space).(27)

Especially when the narrow sheets of glass are seen edge-on in the slots in their croquet box, they suggest their membership in an infinite series (reflections in mirrors can also imply infinite reiterations). In an interview with Pierre Cabanne, Duchamp emphasized the serial characteristics of the Stoppages: “When you’ve come to the word three, you have three million–it’s the same thing as three. I had decided that the things would be done three times to get what I wanted. My Three Standard Stoppages is produced by three separate experiments, and the form of each one is slightly different. I keep the line, and I have a deformed meter.”
(28)

he specifics of how Duchamp kept his line and used his deformed meter is worth exploring further. He tells Cabanne that he had been interested in working on glass for several reasons, including the way color “is visible from the other side.” Glass was also useful in laying out its various elements: “perspective was very important. The Large Glass constitutes a rehabilitation of perspective, which had been completely ignored and disparaged. For me, perspective became absolutely scientific.”(29)

y using linear perspective in his design, Duchamp could arrange the Bachelors’ domain in such a way that the vanishing point coincided with the horizontal division between the upper and lower panels of the Glass.

From this perspective, or from the point of view of perspective, Duchamp’s saying that a “labyrinth” lies at the “central part of the stripping-bare” is significant: the Large Glass and the Three Standard Stoppages are about occlusion.(30)

They involve unusual station points, and unusual distance points, in a perspectival system that can only be reconstructed from isolated positions outside normal space. If Duchamp were thinking of his “strips” of glass as physical puns on the notion of “stripping” the Bride, then their structure is doubly suggestive.(31) Because her clothing consists of transparent sections of glass that
are entailed with a “point de fuite,” it can be taken to include a complex set of folds, not only in the cloth of the garments, but also in the fabric of space. Recall that Traveler’s Folding Item is conceptually related to the Three Standard Stoppages.Also, the typewriter cover has been called the “Bride’s Dress.” (32)Perhaps the disappearance of the Stoppages, their dropping away toward infinity at the position of the Bride’s garments, can be taken as an interdimensional folding up, a stripping bare thatrequires orthogonal translation into higher space.

Perhaps the disappearance of the Stoppages, their dropping away toward infinity at the position of the Bride’s garments, can be taken as an interdimensional folding up, a stripping bare that requires orthogonal translation into higher space.

All of the works here under discussion are related to one another through perspectivalism (and also perspectivism). For Duchamp, the use of perspective as a system was not a matter of creating single, fixed-point ways of looking at things. It was, on the contrary, involved in dislodging viewers from their ordinary ways of understanding. And with this objective in mind, his choosing readymades during the same period he was working on the Stoppagescan be seen as a related activity. When Duchamp made his remark about Three Standard Stoppages being a readymade, but “not quite,” he continued by saying, “it’s a readymade if you wish, but a moving one.”(33)

The curving pieces of string and our shifting notions of the meaning of the readymades seem to trail off from a “vanishing point”at the horizon of our own thinking. The readymades refuse to abide
by our ordinary definitions of art, and the Stoppages allude to geometries that have challenged our traditional epistemological structures.
(34)

Their curvatures can be taken as references to non-Euclidean or topological geometries, complications that necessitate our reconsidering our vanishing points. The strings, when taken as analogues for lines of sight, are transposed, or rotated, into a hidden space.


click to enlarge
Girard Desargues's discussions of perspective
Figure 13
Girard Desargues’s discussions
of perspective
Girard Desargues's discussions of perspective
Figure 14
Girard Desargues’s discussions
of perspective

What I have in mind here can be seen in the illustrations that accompany Girard Desargues’s discussions of perspective (Figs. 13 and 14). Desargues was the first mathematician to see connections between linear perspective and conic sections, and is generally considered to be the founder of projective geometry.(35) He contributed to the “mathematicization” of perspective,
helping to transform the practical Renaissance practice of artists into the deductive science of geometers.(36)
In the illustrations, threads from lines of sight are bunched up at the plane of the picture, as if they were lying at, or perhaps it would be better to say “in,” the surface of the representation. Rather than being part of the representations, which are behind the surface and inside the three-dimensional structure represented by the picture, they are meant to be seen as separate from it.(37)
In other words, they lie in a transparent perspectival section of our visual pyramid, the surface of the picture plane that we do not normally look at in a Renaissance picture, but through.(38)

Such lines are also connected by a technological protocol involving an “arbor.” Desargues is one of the most likely sources for Duchamp’s referring to the “Bride” as an “arbor-type.”(39) The mathematician uses the term “arbre” in his discussions of perspective, as J. V. Field has explained:

“Arbre” is usually translated as “tree,” but the word can equally mean “arbor” or “axle.” Like the central axle in a machine, Desargues’ arbre is the member to which others are referred, that is, their relation to it is what chiefly defines their significance in the overall arrangement. The standard metaphorical usage whereby engineers called an axle a tree might thus have suggested to Desargues an extension of the same metaphor to provide names for subsidiary elements in the geometrical scheme.
(40)

In Desargues’ usage, an “arbre” becomes a geometrical axis.(41) His unusual vocabulary was probably inspired by his engineering and military experience, as Field suggests. Desargues employs a number of other “arbor-type” terms, such as tronc (trunk), noeud (knot), rameau (branch), souche (stump), and branche (limb). A “trunk” is a straight line that is intersected by other straight lines, “knots” are the points on the “trunk” through which the other lines pass, the other lines themselves are called “branches,” a point common to a group of segments on a line is a “stump,” one of these segments is a “limb,” etc.(42)

Desargues’ general approach of adopting an affective vocabulary for geometrical entities recalls Duchamp’s practice. For example, Desargues’ term essieu (axletree) is reminiscent of Duchamp’s term charnière (hinge). “Perhaps make a hinge picture (folding yardstick, book); develop the principle of the hinge in the displacements, first in the plane, second in space. Find an automatic description of the hinge. Perhaps introduce it in the Pendu femelle.”(43) The mechanical engineering term “axletree” refers, basically, to a fixed beam with bearings at its ends. Because the axletree has
other devices, such as wheels, branching from it, we can perhaps see why Desargues saw a comparable situation in the way geometrical projections branch off from the axes of his perspective system. In English, the similar term “arbor” was apparently used during the seventeenth
century to designate any kind of axle, but is now generally used to refer to the axles in small mechanisms such as clocks.(44)

Duchamp hints that he was familiar with these kinds of distinctions. In one of his posthumously published notes (actually notations on a folder that originally contained several other notes), he associates the Bride, the “Pendu” (femelle), with a “standard arbor (shaft model).”
(45)

In another, he connects the Bride, a “framework–standard arbor,” and a “clockwork apparatus.”
(46)

In Desargues’s way of thinking, an “arbor” or an “axletree” was analogous to an axis of rotation, a mathematical “axle,” around which the elements of his transformative system revolved. In
Duchamp’s descriptions of the complex workings of the Bride, “hinges” operate in comparable ways.

That Desargues was one of Duchamp’s sources can be given further credence by analyzing another important iconographical element of the Bride’s domain, the “nine shots,” an area of the Large Glass that was also reconstructed in 1936.(47) At a conceptual level, the “nine shots” seem to have an “Arguesian” perspectival demeanor.(48) It has recently been noticed that a number of Duchamp’s notes have been split in two.(49)  One of the most interesting instances involves the “nine shots.”
A note included in his posthumously published Notes is the top part of a note published in the Green Box. Taken together, the two parts read as follows:

Make a painting on glass so that it has neither front, nor back; neither top, nor bottom. To use probably as a three-dimensional physical medium in a four-dimensional perspective.
(50)

Shots. From more or less far; on a target. This target in short corresponds to the vanishing point (in perspective). The figure thus obtained will be the projection (through skill) of the principal points of a three-dimensional body. With maximum skill, this projection would be reduced to a point (the target).
With ordinary skill this projection will be a demultiplication of the target. (Each of the new points [images of the target] will have a coefficient of displacement. This coefficient is nothing but a souvenir and can be noted conventionally. The different shots tinted from black to white according to their distance.)
In general, the figure obtained is the visible flattening (a stop on the way) of the demultiplied body. Cannon; match with tip of fresh paint. Repeat this operation 9 times, 3 times by 3 times from the same point: A–3 shots; B–3 shots, C–3 shots. A, B, and C are not in a plane and represent the schema of any object whatever of the demultiplied body.

(51)

Desargues used the unusual term “ordinance” for the orthogonals in a perspective system, the sheaf of lines that recede into the distance toward a vanishing point at the horizon. An “ordinance of lines” (ordonnance de droictes) corresponds to what we would now call a “pencil of lines” in modern geometrical parlance.(52)
Desargues, who had worked as a military engineer, may again have been prone to thinking of the trajectories of cannon shots toward a target as analogues for lines diminishing toward a vanishing point in a perspective system (or toward the vertex of a pencil of lines in a more purely geometrical representation). His term for a vanishing point (or for the vertex in an “ordinance of lines”) is “but.” He uses the expression “but d’une ordonnance,” which can be translated as “butt of an ordinance,” but which is probably more comprehensibly rendered as “target of an ordinance”). Duchamp’s line from the note above, “This target in short corresponds to the vanishing point (in perspective),” reads in French, “Ce but est en somme une correspondance du point du fuite (en perspective).”

(53)


click to enlarge
Pharmacy
Figure 15
Marcel Duchamp, Pharmacy, 1914

Before leaving the potential influence of Desargues’ vocabulary, it might be pointed out that the notion of an “arbor-type” seems to inform several of Duchamp’s readymades. Pharmacy (Fig. 15), chosen in 1914, is a tree-filled landscape with a red and green dot added by Duchamp (at vanishing points?) on the horizon line. In addition to being a reference to the colored bottles in drugstore windows, the colors may also be a subtle reference to the techniques of anaglyphy, a practice related to stereoscopy that we know Duchamp was interested in, probably because of its n-dimensional implications.(54) In the layout of Robert Lebel’s early monograph, a design that Duchamp was largely responsible for, Pharmacy is juxtaposed to the Bottlerack (Fig. 16),
also chosen in 1914. On the facing page are the Network of Stoppages, 1914, and Cemetery of Uniforms and Liveries, No. 2(Fig. 17), 1914, the drawing that Duchamp used to transfer the design of the “capillary tubes” and the “nine malic molds” to the Large Glass.(55) Above Pharmacy and the Bottlerack is Cemetery of Uniforms and Liveries, No. 1 (Fig. 18), which in the more multi-layered French edition of the book, had a color image of Nine Malic Molds (Fig. 19) tipped in over it.(56)

click images to enlarge

  • Bottle Dryer
  • Cemetery of Uniforms
and Liveries , No. 2
  • Figure 16
  • Figure 17
  • Marcel Duchamp,
    Bottle Dryer
    , 1914/1964
  • Marcel Duchamp,
    Cemetery of Uniforms
    and Liveries, No. 2
    , 1914

click images to enlarge

  • Cemetery of Uniforms
and Liveries, No. 1
  • Nine
Malic Molds,
  • Figure 18
  • Figure 19
  • Marcel Duchamp,
    Cemetery of Uniforms
    and Liveries, No. 1
    , 1913
  • Marcel Duchamp,Nine
    Malic Molds
    , 1914-15

####PAGES####


click to enlarge
Duchamp
Figure 20
Photograph of Duchamp, 1942

With Desargues’ terminology such as “tree,” “trunk,” “branch,” and “limb” in mind, these works look positively geometrical. InNetwork of Stoppages, for example, the pattern of lines resemble branches, especially if the painting is rotated ninety degrees clockwise. In the background, the nude woman in “Young Man and Girl in Spring,” the first layer of Network of Stoppages, is then centered in the boughs of the tree. From this perspective, she becomes a precursor for the Bride as an “arbor-type.” In theBottlerack, the prongs appear to be rotated around a central axis (anarbre) and suggest reiterated line segments (rameaux or branches). That these interpretations can be taken seriously is reinforced by an interesting photograph of Duchamp taken in 1942 showing him standing in front of a tree that has been provided with prongs so that it can act as a bottle dryer (Fig. 20). A number of bottles, which have been hung upon this “arbre-séchoir,” can be seen behind Duchamp, and he has a network of linear shadows, which have been cast from the branches of the tree, falling across his face.(57)

The various connections here under discussion can perhaps be made more evident, in the sense of our being able to “see” into Duchamp’s n-dimensional realm, by bringing his important painting Tu m’ (Fig. 21) into the discussion.


click to enlarge
Marcel Duchamp, Tu m'1918
Figure 21
Marcel Duchamp, Tu m’,
1918

This work has “anamorphic” aspects and is closely related to the Three Standard Stoppages, which were used to draw a number of its curving shapes.(58) The shadows of readymades–the Bicycle Wheel, the Corkscrew, and the Hat Rack–stretch out across the surface of the picture plane suggesting an anamorphic transformation. At one level, of course, Tu m’ is about the “shadowy” existence of art objects.(59) The Corkscrew, in fact, exists only as a shadow on this painting. But
on more important levels, the work is about geometry–both Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. In addition to these geometries of constant curvature, Duchamp may also have been thinking about topology: some elements in the painting seem to be stretched and pulled, as if they
were elastic.(60)
The shadows of the readymades are themselves distorted transformations, and they are cast onto a surface that seems to be warped and curved, and the space behind the surface is filled with strangely bent geometrical objects.

On the right-hand side of the canvas, there is an irregular, open-sided rectangular “solid.” The left side of this solid is a white surface that recedes into the space of the canvas according to one-point perspective. From each corner of the white surface, two lines, drawn with the templates of the Three Standard Stoppages, extend at more or less right angles toward the right. One of each of these is black and the other red. The black lines at all four edges are drawn with the same template. Each set of lines at the upper boundary of the solid cross one another at two points, and each set are drawn in the same way. The two lines at the lower edges of the solid do not cross one another, and they are rotated and inverted with respect to one another.

There are also a series of color bands (twenty-four in all) extending orthogonally back into the space of the “solid,” or into its virtual shape. They seem to continue on behind it. These bands are connected to the curved line segments that comprise the ambiguous edges of the transparent solid, a volume we could think of as a 3-space with fluctuant, transparent faces. Each of the color bands is surrounded by a number of concentric circles that also recede back into the painting’s virtual space according to one-point perspective. The vanishing point coincides with the bottom edge of the canvas just to the right of center below the indexical hand, which, incidentally, is a hand-painted readymade element executed by a certain A. Klang, a sign painter Duchamp hired to carry out this task. Klang’s minuscule signature is visible near the sleeve.

Duchamp’s complex geometrical arrangement is made even more complex by the shadow of the Hat Rack, which occupies the same region of the canvas as the “solid.” On one level, the Hat Rack resembles a tree, and the shadows cast from its multiple branches suggest yet another “arbor-type.” We know that the Bride is based, in part, on the idea of the cast shadow, “as if it were the projection of a four-dimensional object.”(61)

The way the Hat Rack interacts with the “solid” is indicative of the complexities that would be involved in such spaces: The lines and color bands seem to overlay the shadow, but the shadow seems to overlay the white rectangle at the left side of the “solid.” The shadow can thus be read as both in front of and behind the chunk of space outlined and bounded by the elements of Duchamp’s design.

The spatial complexities of Tu m’ can also be seen in the recession of its orthogonals. They plunge backward in a way that is comparable to the convergence of orthogonals in the Large Glass. In the former, the lines come together just at the lower edge of the painting, in the latter, just at the upper boundary of the Bachelors’ domain. In Tu m’, the vanishing point is where the “solid” (and also its edges drawn with the Three Standard Stoppages) would disappear. In the Large Glass, the point is at the center of the three plates of glass running across the Bride’s horizon. It is where these “lines” would disappear, if rotated ninety degrees. The Bride’s garments, when thus folded up, can be taken as orthogonals to a point of intersection–the intersection of parallel lines at infinity.

In Euclidean geometry, parallel lines do not intersect. The mathematical convention that they do intersect at infinity was one of Desargues’ important contributions. (Parallel lines do seem to intersect at the vanishing point of a perspective system, which may have given Desargues his idea.) Thinking of parallel lines as meeting at infinity eventually contributed to the development of non-Euclidean geometries in the nineteenth century.(62)

The conceptual point where parallel lines meet cannot be seen, any more than the curvature of space can be perceived directly. If the curved lines in theThree Standard Stoppagesare taken as references to non-Euclidean lines of sight, then they are fundamentally hidden in “garments” of the Bride, just as the vanishing point in Tu m’seems to disappear off the edge of its hyperspatial expanse.

The left side of Tu m’ is also complicated. In addition to the shadows of the Bicycle Wheel and the Corkscrew, lines drawn with the templates of the Three Standard Stoppages are placed at the lower left-hand side of the canvas. Each of these line segments is at the edge of three curved surfaces that seem to fall back into the space of the canvas. If these irregular planes are thought of as a “pencil of surfaces” (Desargues uses the term “ordonnance de plans“), they would withdraw downward at more or less right angles to the space of the canvas toward a line of intersection located at an infinite distance. (Desargues says that a sheaf of parallel planes can be imagined converging at an “essieu,” an “axle,” just as an “ordinance of lines” can be imagined intersecting at a “point à une distance infinie.”)

(63)
The edge of the upper member of this pencil of planes is black, and it is drawn with the same “stoppage” that was used at each edge of the rectangular “solid” on the right side of the canvas. The edge of the line segment in the middle register was used as the other line at the edges of the upper boundary, and the edge of the line segment in the lower register was used as the other line at the edges of the lower boundary of the “solid.” The shadow of the Bicycle Wheel seems to overlay this arrangement of superposed curved surfaces. There is also a sequence of flat color squares receding according to a plunging perspective back from the center of the canvas into an infinite space at the upper left corner of the canvas. This arrangement of color squares seems to overlay the shadow of the Bicycle Wheel. In contrast, the shadow of the Corkscrew, which seems to spiral out from the axle of the wheel, overlays the color squares. Reading the shadows as riding on the surface of the actual canvas is thus complicated by their relationships with objects occupying the virtual space depicted “inside” the canvas. Duchamp further emphasizes the spatial oddities of his picture by using various forms of “intersection.” The corkscrew intersects the canvas by seeming to spiral into it; the safety pins pierce the surface of the canvas; and the bottle brush and the bolt go through the front side of the picture and are fastened to it from behind.


click to enlarge
Marcel Duchamp,Tu m'1918
Figure 22
Marcel Duchamp, Tu m’, 1918
(side view)

Duchamp is obviously playing with real and represented objects and with real and represented space in Tu m’. To further complicate the issues, he paints a trompe l’oeiltear in the surface of the canvas, which is held together by the real safety pins. In addition to these ready-made elements, the bottle brush juts out from the tear at right angles to the canvas. As an actual object, a readymade, the bottle brush casts actual shadows that can be contrasted with the virtual shadows of the Bicycle Wheel, the Corkscrew, and the Hat Rack, which Duchamp traced onto the surface with pencil. In terms of its geometry, the bottle brush is really only visible when we look at Tu m’ from the side, at an oblique angle (Fig. 22). When we view the canvas straight on, all we see is the end of the brush. Looking at the canvas from the side also allows us to see the other elements of the painting, and they seem less stretched out, less constrained by the plunging perspective. The shift is particularly apparent in the sequence of color squares at the upper left side of the canvas. In fact, we now notice that these shapes are not really squares, but parallelograms that look more “natural” from the side than from the front.


click to enlarge
Jean-François Nicéron,Thaumaturgus opticus
Figure 23
Jean-François Nicéron,
Thaumaturgus opticus,
1646

Duchamp probably learned something about these kinds of anamorphic effects during the period he was working at the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève in Paris. One of his notes for the Large Glass, which he wrote at this time, suggests consulting the library’s collection: “Perspective. See the catalogue of the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève. The whole section on perspective: Nicéron (Father J.-F.), Thaumaturgus opticus.”(64) Many of the books on perspective available to Duchamp at the library deal with the unusual, or “aberrant,” systems used in anamorphosis. These include works by Father Jean-François Nicéron, whom Duchamp mentions by name in his note.(65)
One of Nicéron’s images from Thaumaturgus opticus (Fig. 23) is evocative of Tu m’, especially if the
sketch is fully extended (the left-hand side of the upper part continues at the right-hand side of the lower part).
(66)

Thus reconnected, the long, narrow dimensions of the image approximate those of Tu m’. Duchamp may also have seen a similarity here between the string held by the assistant in the left-hand part of the drawing and the segments of string in Three Standard Stoppages. In Nicéron’s illustration, as in perspective drawings generally, the curling end of the line is meant to indicate that it is a thread used in the construction of the image, rather than being an integral element of the imagery.


click to enlarge
The French Ambassadors of King
Henri II
Figure 24
Hans Holbein the Younger,
The French Ambassadors of King
Henri II at the court of the
English King Henry VIII
, 1533

Duchamp’s thread is more complex. The strings in theThree Standard Stoppagesare themselves spaces, one-dimensional spaces, and they are intended to indicate a more difficult geometry than the one Nicéron had in mind. But Duchamp’s manner of taking an oblique view and his interest in observing a scene through a visual system rotated away from normal space, is very similar to the way Nicéron turns his outstretched images onto the wall. Duchamp’s (and Nicéron’s) procedure is also reminiscent of Hans Holbein’s famous portrait, The French Ambassadors (Fig. 24), in which a distended skull crosses the picture plane at more or less right-angles to the orthogonals of the perspective system used to construct the painting.(67)The French Ambassadorsis a favorite
image among postmodernists, primarily because it brings together two different ways of looking at objects in one picture.(68)The primary visual order, the three-dimensional space of the scientific perspective, is undermined by the anomalous skull falling across it. The abnormal space of the death’s head interpenetrates the normal space where the ambassadors live, casting a shadow across their existence. It also displaces the dominant viewing subject from a position in front of the painting to one at the side–to a position that is essentially outside the picture’s frame of reference.(69)
As the skull comes into adjustment, the painting becomes distorted, and vice versa. Jean Clair has discussed Tu m’ in terms comparable to those just used to describe Holbein’s painting. He points out that, when looked at obliquely, “the shadows of the readymades and the design of the parallelepiped straighten up.”(70) He also notices the way in which the bottle brush seems to rotate out from the surface of the canvas, changing from a “dot,” or point, into “no more than a line.” According to Clair, the function of the bottle brush is similar to that of the skull in Holbein’s picture: namely, “to expose the vanity of the painting.But this time of all paintings.”(71)

We can amplify Clair’s remarks by pointing out that, as we move to the side of Tu m’, the surface of the picture is visually rotated. If we were able to continue on around the picture in order to look at it edge on, the surface would be reduced to a line segment, from which the “line segment” of the bottle brush would extend at a right angle. The bottle brush is a readymade, a counterpart of an orthogonal, one that comes out into our space rather than receding into the space of the painting. The sequence of color squares, apparently attached to the surface of the canvas with the bolt, would presumably be receding in the opposite direction along the axis of the shaft (the axle) of the bolt back into the space of the canvas, which as we move to the side, is not only flattened into a two-dimensional surface, but further reduced to a one-dimensional line segment. Clair’s statement that as the “painting vanishes, the readymade makes its appearance,” is quite true. We could also say that the actual readymade (the bottle brush) makes its appearance as the virtual readymades and their shadows disappear. And vice versa: as the real elements of the work vanish, the virtual elements reappear.

A similar language could be used to describe the intersection of the strings with the glass plates of the Three Standard Stoppages. They trail off at right-angles, as it were, along lines that are orthogonal to the canvas strips, as if they had been rotated out of the virtual space of the “Prussian blue” into the actual space of the canvases. If the strings are analogous to “lines of sight,” they are like threads lying “in” the surface of the perspectival plane, as we have seen in Desargues’ perspective renderings (Figs. 13 and 14) or in Nicéron’s illustration (Fig. 23). In this sense, the strings can be taken as anamorphic lines crossing the representational space of the sheets of glass. Recall what Duchamp’s space was intended to show: his glass has “neither front, nor back; neither top, nor bottom,” and it can be used as a “three-dimensional physical medium” in the construction of a “four-dimensional perspective.” In the Large Glass and the Three Standard Stoppages, Duchamp was both literally and figuratively boxing and encasing the geometrical elements of his iconography–inside glass and inside an n-dimensional projective system. With Tu m’, he was also enclosing the basic elements of his own working method, and, indeed, the basic elements of painting as a general practice, inside a complex pictorial space, one with unusual curvatures.

Duchamp’s works such as the ones I have discussed in this paper, with their various projections and intersections, each in their turn folding up into the next, suggest that he was thinking about different kinds of geometries. Henri Poincaré, among the artist’s most likely mathematical sources, often discusses the interrelationships of geometries.(72)

Projective geometry, which was prefigured in Renaissance perspective and initially elaborated in the work of such seventeenth-century mathematicians as Desargues and Blaise Pascal,(73)
was later, during the nineteenth century, recognized as being central to mathematics in general. By the end of the century, both Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry had been subsumed under the principles of projective geometry.
(74)

Projective geometry deals with properties of geometrical figures that remain invariant under transformation. It studies mappings of one figure onto another brought about by projection and section, and it tries to find qualities that remain fixed during these procedures (Desargues’ Theorem and Pascal’s Theorem describe famous examples). Twentieth-century mathematicians have invented methods of transformation that are even more general than projection and section. One of the most important of these approaches, topology, considers geometrical properties of figures that are unchanged while these figures undergo deformations such as stretching and bending. Especially in the context of the present discussion, Poincaré can be thought of as the “father
of modern topology,” (75) a subject that he referred to as analysis situs (Latin for “analysis of the site”; “topology” coming from the Greek equivalent for “study of the place”). He points out that this geometry “gives rise to a series of theorems just as closely interconnected as those of Euclid.”
(76)

Duchamp’s Tu m’ can very nearly serve as an illustration for Poincaré’s arguments. As pointed out earlier, the elongated shadows can be taken as anamorphic deformations, and thus as references to topological transformations with four-dimensional, or more generally, n-dimensional ramifications (branchings), particularly insofar as anamorphic projections seem to intersect normal space at oblique angles. In ways that are like Holbein’s famous skull, the cast shadows in Tu m’ seem to traverse the space of the picture and, in this sense, they are orthogonal to it (shadows are literally orthogonal to the surfaces on which they are cast). From the perspective of the fourth dimension, the strings in Three Standard Stoppages can also be interpreted as falling away from normal space along perpendicular lines, at least insofar as they plummet toward the horizon of the Bride. Duchamp’s cast shadows, and perhaps his cast segments of strings, are projective analogies for higher-dimensional spaces. His general approach can be seen in the following note:

For an ordinary eye, a point in a three-dimensional space hides, conceals the fourth direction of the continuum–which is to say that this eye can try to perceive physically this fourth direction by going around the said point. From whatever angle it looks at the point, this point will always be the border line of the fourth direction–just as an ordinary eye going around a mirror will never be able to perceive anything but the reflected three-dimensional image and nothing from behind.(77)

Looked at “edge-on,” in the sense of being seen undergoing an n-dimensional rotation, the individual “stoppages” can be taken as trailing off into the fourth direction of what Duchamp
calls the “étendue.”(78)From such a perspective, they would be perceived as points. The viewer equipped with a four-dimensional visual system, to use Duchamp’s words, would be able to ascertain that a “point” is always a “border line” of this “fourth direction.” At the center of the Bride’s garments, the Stoppages recede anamorphically into the labyrinth of the fourth dimension, a space that is orthogonal to normal space. Duchamp was probably aware that in descriptions of n-dimensional geometry, when n is greater than 3, the convention is to say that planes intersect at points, unlike what happens in three-dimensional space where, of course, they intersect along lines.(79) The curvature of the string does not really affect this n-dimensional argument since curvature depends upon whether or not the space is Euclidean, non-Euclidean, or whatever.(80) We can, in a sense, choose the space to have any curvature we want.(81)

In Tu m’, readymades cast shadows onto the surface of the painting, but these shadows do more than ride on the surface. As we have seen, they are interlocked in curious ways with the entities depicted in the space of the picture, convolutions that indicate Duchamp was interested in the readymades and their shadows as geometrical objects. The shadows themselves have perspectival implications and topological associations; and they are obviously seen differently under changing angles of view. As we walk “around” the picture, it presents shifting aspects. In Tu m’, and, indeed, in most of his works, Duchamp was interested in exploring both actual viewpoint and philosophical point of view, as well as the effects of the two acting together.

Such consequences were apparently on Duchamp’s mind when he chose readymades: bicycle wheels, corkscrews, and hat racks were works of art depending upon how they were perceived. He was involved with a discourse of surface (and reflective surface) in many of his works (often using glass and mirror in their construction). Because projective analogies such as shadows and falling pieces of string can be related to several different geometries, not just to n-dimensional Euclidean, or for that matter n-dimensional non-Euclidean geometry, Duchamp can entail other regimes of meaning into his system. Within any given framework, one which might, say, be used to interpret theThree Standard Stoppages, Network of Stoppages, Tu m’, the Large Glass, Nine Malic Molds, or the readymades, Duchamp understood that the implications of choosing one standpoint over another were manifold (and the etymological associations of this last term are germane here).(82)

Duchamp believed that, just as how we use a particular geometry to interpret the shape of the world is largely a matter of discretion, as Poincaré argued, so too is our choice of the interpretive frameworks that we use in making our aesthetic judgments. As an artist, Duchamp was engaged in self-referential, contemplative activities. He tried to look at himself seeing, and by so doing, to dislocate himself from the center of his own perspective.

Interview with Francis Roberts1. Interview with Francis Roberts, “I Propose to Strain the Laws of Physics,”Art News 67 (December 1968): 62.

 

Footnote Return 2.Marcel Duchamp, Salt Seller: The Writings of Marcel Duchamp (Marchand du Sel), ed. Michel Sanouillet and Elmer Peterson (New York:Oxford University Press, 1973) 33.

 

Footnote Return 3.In a note included in the Box of 1914, Duchamp says that “the Three Standard Stoppages are the meter diminished.”Ibid., 22.

 

Footnote Return 4.Interview with Katherine Kuh, The Artist’s Voice: Talks with Seventeen Artists (New York: Harper & Row, 1960), 81.

 

Footnote Return 5.The Network of Stoppages and its relationship to the Large Glass is explained by Richard Hamilton, The Almost Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp (London: Arts Council of Great Britain,1966), 49: “The curved lines are drawn using each template of the Standard Stoppages three times, once in each of the three groups. It was Duchamp’s intention to photograph the canvas from an angle in order to put the lines into the perspective required for the Large Glass–a means of overcoming the difficulty of transferring the amorphous curves through normal perspective projection. Photography did not prove up to the assignment and a perspective drawing had to be made.”

 

Footnote Return 6. Linda Dalrymple Henderson, Duchamp in Context: Science and Technology in the “Large Glass” and Related Works (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998) 63, 105; she credits Ulf Linde with drawing her attention to the different colors of the glass plates; see his Marcel Duchamp (Stockholm: Rabén and Sjögren, 1986) 138.

 

Footnote Return 7. Ulf Linde, “MARiée CELibataire,” in Walter Hopps, Ulf Linde, and Arturo Schwarz, Marcel Duchamp: Ready-Mades, etc. (1913-1964) (Paris: Le Terrain Vague, 1964), 48; see also Arturo Schwarz, The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp (New York: Abrams, 1970) 463. Henderson (cited n. 6) 105, quotes this passage from Linde in her interpretation of the Bride’s “clothing” as a condenser.

 

Footnote Return 8.Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 22, 33.

 

Footnote Return 9.This important discovery was made recently by Rhonda Roland Shearerand Stephen Jay Gould; see their essay “Hidden in Plain Sight:Duchamp’s Three Standard Stoppages, More Truly a `Stoppage'(An Invisible Mending) Than We Ever Realized,” Tout-Fait:The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal 1, no. 1 (December1999) News <http://www.toutfait.com/duchamp.jsp?postid=677&keyword=.

 

Footnote Return 10.See Craig Adcock, Marcel Duchamp’s Notes from the “Large Glass”: An N-Dimensional Analysis (Ann Arbor, Mich.:UMI Research Press, 1983) esp. 135-46, 189-90; see also, idem,”Marcel Duchamp’s `Instantanés’: Photography and the EventStructure of the Ready-Mades,” in “Event” Arts and Art Events, ed. Stephen C. Foster (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1988) 239-66.

 

Footnote Return 11.Duchamp’s Three Standard Stoppages and Marey’s chronophotographs are discussed by Jean Clair, Duchamp et la photographie: Essai d’analyse d’un primat technique sur le développement d’une oeuvre (Paris: Éditions du Chêne, 1977) 26-28, 52. For statements by Duchamp about chronophotography, see his interviews with James Johnson Sweeney, “Eleven Europeans in America,” Museum of Modern Art Bulletin 13 (1946): 19-21, reprinted in Duchamp, Salt Seller, 123-26; and with Pierre Cabanne, Dialogues with Marcel Duchamp, trans. Ron Padgett (New York: Viking Press, 1971) 34. For Marey’s work, see Étienne-Jules Marey, Le Mouvement (Paris: G. Masson, Éditeur, 1894).

 

Footnote Return 12.Schwarz (cited n. 7) 444, says that Duchamp’s chose his title after seeing a sign on a Parisian shop advertizing “stoppage”; see also Francis Naumann, The Mary and William Sisler Collection (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1984) 168-71. Jennifer Gough-Cooper and Jacques Caumont, “Ephemerides on and about Marcel Duchamp and Rrose Sélavy, 1887-1968,” in Marcel Duchamp: Work and Life, ed. Pontus Hulten (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993), in their entry for May 19, 1914, have suggested that the sign read “stoppages et talons,” which would imply fixing holes in the heels (talons) of socks and stockings.

 

Footnote Return 13.Robert Lebel, Marcel Duchamp, with texts by André Breton and H.-P. Roché, trans. George Heard Hamilton (New York: Grove Press, 1959) 54.

 

Footnote Return 14.In an interview with James Johnson Sweeney filmed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and broadcast as part of the “Wisdom” series on NBC television in January 1956, Duchamp himself put forward a similar argument: “I like the cracks, the way they fall. You remember how it happened in 1926, in Brooklyn? They put the two panes on top of one another on a truck, flat, not knowing what they were carrying, and bounced for sixty miles into Connecticut, and that’s the result! But the more I look at it the more I like the cracks: they are not like shattered glass. They have a shape. There is a symmetry in the cracking, the two crackings are symmetrically arranged and there is more, almost an intention there, an extra–a curious intention that I am not responsible for, a ready-made intention, in other words, that I respect and love.” “A Conversation with Marcel Duchamp,” reprinted in Duchamp,Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 127-37, the quote is from p. 127. The Large Glass was on view at the “International Exhibition of Modern Art” at the Brooklyn Museum between November 17, 1926, and January 9, 1927. It thus must have been broken on its way back to Katherine S. Dreier’s home in West Redding, Connecticut, in early 1927, rather than in 1926 as Duchamp says.

 

Footnote Return 15.Interview with Cabanne (cited n. 11) 75: “It’s a lot better with the breaks, a hundred times better. It’s the destiny of things.” See also Mark B. Pohlad, “`Macaroni Repaired is Ready for Thursday . . .’: Marcel Duchamp as Conservator,” Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal 1, no. 3 (December 2002) Articles <http://www.toutfait.com/duchamp.jsp?postid=910&keyword=>.

 

16.Henderson (cited n. 6) discusses the Bride’s “garments” and their relationship with the Three Standard Stoppages in terms of “telegraphy,” comparing the glass plates in these works to such devices as condensers and insulators; see especially her chap. 8, “The Large Glass as a Painting of Electromagnetic Frequency.”

 

Footnote Return 17.Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 39.

Footnote Return 18.Marcel Duchamp, Notes, ed. and trans. Paul Matisse (Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 1980), no. 154.

 

Footnote Return 19.Marcel Duchamp, Notes, ed. and trans. Paul Matisse (Paris:Centre Georges Pompidou, 1980), no. 154.
 

Footnote Return 20.For a more complete discussion of these ideas, see Craig Adcock, “Conventionalism in Henri Poincaré and Marcel Duchamp,” Art Journal 44 (fall 1984): 249-58; see also idem, Marcel Duchamp’s Notes (cited n. 10) 149-54.
 

Footnote Return 21.Ecke Bonk, Marcel Duchamp, The Box in a Valise: de ou par Marcel Duchamp ou Rrose Sélavy, trans. David Britt (New York: Rizzoli, 1989) 216-20. See also the letters Duchamp sent to Dreier during late 1935 and early 1936 in Affectionately, Marcel: The Selected Correspondence of Marcel Duchamp, ed. Francis M. Naumann and Hector Obalk (Ghent and Amsterdam: Ludion Press, 2000) 199-207.
 

Footnote Return 22.For a discussion of Duchamp’s approach, along somewhat different lines, see Craig Adcock, “Duchamp’s Way: Twisting Our Memory of the Past `For the Fun of It,'” in The Definitively
Unfinished Marcel Duchamp
, ed. Thierry de Duve (Halifax: Nova Scotia College of Art and Design; Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 1991) 311-34.

 

Footnote Return 23.Interview Kuh (cited n. 4) 92.

   

Footnote Return 24.Interview with Cabanne (cited 11) 75.

 

Footnote Return 25.Duchamp, Duchamp du Signe (cited n. 18) 50.

 

Footnote Return 26.Esprit Pascal Jouffret, Traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions et introduction à la géométrie à n dimensions (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1903), xxviii. For a more detailed discussion of Jouffret’s usage and its importance for Duchamp’s concept of inframince, see Adcock, Marcel Duchamp’s Notes (cited n. 10) 48-55.

 

Footnote Return 27. Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2), 88. For more detailed analyses of Duchamp’s use of glass and mirror as metaphors for four-dimensional perspective, see Adcock, Marcel Duchamp’s Notes (cited n. 10), esp. 75-79, 146-49; also idem, “Geometrical Complication in the Art of Marcel Duchamp,” Arts Magazine 58 (January 1984): 105-09

 

Footnote Return 28.Interview with Cabanne (cited n. 11) 47.

 

Footnote Return 29.Ibid., 38.

 

Footnote Return 30.Duchamp, Notes (cited n. 19) no. 139; see also no.153.

 

Footnote Return 31.See Henderson (cited n. 6) 63: “The Stoppages‘ arrangement of one clear and two greenish glass plates parallels exactly that of the glass strips mounted on the Large Glass: the top strip is clear and the two below are greenish in hue. Because Duchamp located the Bride’s “Clothing” at the midsection of the Glass, the gravity-drawn thread lines of the Stoppages may have become for him a metonymical sign for the fallen garment of the Bride.”

 

Footnote Return 32.Linde, “MARiée CELibataire” (cited n. 7) 60; Arturo Schwarz (cited n. 7, p. 463) says that Duchamp related Traveler’s Folding Item to a “feminine skirt.” See also Molly Nesbit and Naomi Sawelson-Gorse, “Concept of Nothing: New Notes by Marcel Duchamp and Walter Arensberg,” The Duchamp Effect: Essays, Interviews, Round Table, ed. Martha Buskirk and Mignon Nixon (Cambridge, Mass., and London: MIT Press, 1996) 131-75. For a number of fascinating connections between Duchamp’s Traveler’s Folding Item and the world at large, see Rhonda Roland Shearer, “Marcel Duchamp: A Readymade Case for Collecting Objects of Our Cultural Heritage along with Works of Art,” Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal 1, no. 3 (December 2000) Collections <http://www.toutfait.com/duchamp.jsp?postid=1090&keyword=>.

 

Footnote Return 33.Interview with Roberts (cited n. 1) 62.

 

Footnote Return 34.Hilary Putnam, for example, has said that “the overthrow of Euclidean geometry is the most important event in the history of science for the epistemologist.” See his Mathematics, Matter and Method, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), x.

 

Footnote Return 35.For one of the most complete discussions of Desargues’ work and for the most reliable translations of his texts, see J. V. Field and J. J. Gray, The Geometrical Work of Girard Desargues (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987). Desargues’ principal essay on projective geometry is Brouillon proiect d’une atteinte aux evenemens des rencontres du Cone avec un Plan (Paris, 1639); his earlier work on perspective, is entitled Exemple de l’une des manieres universelles du S.G.D.L. touchant la pratique de la perspective sans emploier aucun tiers point, de distance ny d’autre nature, qui foit hors du champ de l’ouvrage (Paris, 1636). “S.G.D.L.” is an abbreviation for “Sieur Girard Desargues Lyonnais.” This twelve page brochure included the two high-quality engraved illustrations reproduced here, which are almost certainly by Abraham Bosse (1602-1676); see J. V. Field, The Invention of Infinity: Mathematics and Art in the Renaissance (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) 192. Desarques’ perspective treatise was included as an appendix in Bosse’s Maniere universelle de Mr. Desargues, pour pratiquer la perspective par petit-pied, comme le Geometral (Paris, 1648)

 

Footnote Return 36.For a discussion of this trend, see Martin Kemp, “Geometrical Perspective from Brunelleschi to Desargues: A Pictorial Means or an Intellectual End?” Proceedings of the British Academy 70 (1984): 89-132.

 

Footnote Return 37.Field (cited n. 35) 192-95.

 

Footnote Return 38.Erwin Panofsky, Perspective as Symbolic Form, trans. Christopher S. Wood (New York: Zone Books, 1991); originally published as “Die Perspektive als `symbolische Form,'” in Vorträge der Bibliothek Warburg, 1924-1925 (Leipzig and Berlin, 1927) 258-330. For a discussion of Panofsky’s contributions to perspective studies, particularly strong in its analysis of sources, see Kim Veltman, “Panofsky’s Perspective: A Half Century Later,” in La Prospettiva rinascimentale: Codificazione e trasgressioni, vol. 1, ed. Marisa Dalai Emiliani (Florence: Centro Di, 1980) 565-84.

 

Footnote Return 39.Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 42: “This cinematic blossoming, which expresses the moment of the stripping, should be grafted onto an arbor-type of the bride. This arbor-type has its roots in the desire-gears, but the cinematic effects of the electrical stripping, transmitted to the motor with quite feeble cylinders, leave (plastic necessity) the arbor-type at rest. (Graphically, in Munich I had already made two studies of this arbor type.) Do not touch the desire-gears, which by giving birth to the arbor-type, find within this arbor-type the transmission of the desire to the blossoming into stripping, voluntarily imagined by the bride desiring.”

 

Footnote Return 40.J. V. Field, “Linear Perspective and the ProjectiveGeometry of Girard Desargues,” Nuncius 2,no. 2 (1987): 3-40.

 

Footnote Return 41.Henderson (cited n. 6) does not refer to Desargues in her discussion of the Bride as an “arbor-type.” She argues that because an “arbor” is an “axle,” Duchamp’s usage should be interpreted as a reference to such devices as the shafts in automobile transmissions or electrical generators. I completely agree that Duchamp could have had these kinds of associations in mind along with his taking an “arbre” to refer to a geometrical axis of rotation.

 

Footnote Return 42.Field and Gray (cited n. 35) 61-175.

 

Footnote Return 43.Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 27; see also idem, Duchamp du Signe (cited n. 18) 42.

 

Footnote Return 44.Field, “Linear Perspective and the Projective Geometry of Girard Desargues” (cited n. 40) 21.

 

Footnote Return 45.Duchamp, Notes (cited n. 19) no. 57.

 

Footnote Return 46.Ibid., no. 155.

 

Footnote Return 47.There are two new sections in the upper right corner of the Large Glass with holes drilled through them to create the “nine shots.” In photographs of the Large Glass taken at the Brooklyn Museum in 1926-27, the “nine shots” are not visible. Duchamp may have incorporated them into the Glass when he was repairing it in 1936.

 

Footnote Return 48. “Arguesian” would be the adjectival counterpart of “Cartesian.” René Descartes (1596-1650) and Desargues (1593-1662) were almost exact contemporaries and communicated with one another about mathematical matters; see Field, Invention of Infinity (cited n. 35) 190-97; see also René Taton, L’Oeuvre mathématique de G. Desargues: Textes publiés et commentés avec une introduction biographique et historique, 2d rev. ed. (Lyon: Institut Interdisciplinaire d’Etudes Epistémologiques, distributed by the Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, Paris, 1988).

 

Footnote Return 49.I am indebted to Hector Obalk for drawing this connection (or reconnection) to my attention in his talk “What Is an Object? The Belated Career of the Readymade,” at the interdisciplinary colloquium “Methods of Understanding in Art and Science: the Case of Duchamp and Poincaré,” Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, November 7, 1999.

 

Footnote Return 50.Duchamp, Notes (cited n. 19) no. 67.

 

Footnote Return 51.Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 35.

 

Footnote Return 52.Field, Invention of Infinity (cited n. 37)197; see also Field and Gray (cited n. 35) 60-68.

 

Footnote Return 53.Duchamp, Duchamp du Signe (cited n. 18) 54.

 

Footnote Return 54.See Adcock, Marcel Duchamp’s Notes (cited n.10) 130-32.

 

Footnote Return 55.Lebel (cited n. 13) 132-33.

 

Footnote Return 56.Robert Lebel, Sur Marcel Duchamp, with textsby André Breton and H.-P. Roché (Paris and London:Éditions Trianon, 1958); a facsimile edition ofthis book was published by the Centre Georges Pompidou,Paris, in 1996.

 

Footnote Return 57.This photograph appears in Robert Lebel, “Dernière soirée avec Marcel Duchamp,” L’Oeil (Paris) no. 167 (November 1968): 18-21; also reproduced in the supplement “Marcel Duchamp et Robert Lebel” in the facsimile edition of Sur Marcel Duchamp (cited n. 56); see also Gough-Cooper and Caumont (cited n. 12), under their entry for April 29, 1942. The photograph was taken just before Duchamp left France for the United States. Mirroring the famous movie script, he sailed from Marseilles to Casablanca, and from there to Lisbon and then to New York, arriving on June 25. See Jennifer Gough-Cooper and Jacques Caumont, Plan pour ecrire une vie de Marcel Duchamp, vol. 1, Marcel Duchamp catalogue (Paris: Centre National d’Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou, Musée National d’Art Moderne, 1977) 23.

 

Footnote Return 58.Bonk (cited n. 21) 218, argues that Duchamp fashioned the templates for the Three Standard Stoppages in 1918 when he was working on Tu m’ and needed to draw their curvatures several times. This chronology would mean that he used something other than the templates, perhaps tracing paper or some other means, to draw the lines in Network of Stoppages in 1914. See also Duchamp’s correspondence with Katherine S. Dreier in Affectionately, Marcel (cited n. 21) 199-207.

 

Footnote Return 59.For a more detailed discussion of Duchamp’s use of shadows on Tu m’, see Adcock, Marcel Duchamp’s Notes (cited n. 10) 41-49. For a more traditional approach, but nonetheless interesting for Duchamp’s work, see Thomas Da Costa Kaufmann, “The Perspective of Shadows: The History of the Theory of Shadow Projection,”Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 38 (1975): 258-87.

 

Footnote Return 60.For a more detailed discussion of Tu m’ in relation to non-Euclidean geometry and topology, see Adcock, Marcel Duchamp’s Notes (cited n. 10) 55-58, 101-02.

 

Footnote Return 61.Interview with Cabanne (cited n. 12) 40.

 

Footnote Return 62.Kemp (cited n. 36) 123-24, points out that Desargues’ discussion of conic sections “helped sow the seeds of non-Euclidian geometry, but was only to be fully taken up by Poncelet in the nineteenth century. Vital steps in the development of new postulates appear to have been taken independently by Kepler and Desargues. The new geometry challenged central assumptions of Euclidian theory. Straight lines came to be interpreted as equivalent to circles which possess radiuses of infinite length, and parallel lines regarded as meeting at infinity.” For the contributions of Poncelet and Kepler alluded to here by Kemp, see Jean-Victor Poncelet, Traité des propriétés projectives des figures (Paris, 1822); Johannes Kepler, Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur (1604); a translation of this last work is included in an appendix, “Kepler’s Invention of Points at Infinity,” in Field and Gray (cited n. 35) 185-88.

 

Footnote Return 63.See Field and Gray (cited n. 35) 60-72.

 

Footnote Return 64.Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 86.

 

Footnote Return 65.Jean-François Nicéron, Thaumaturgus opticus (Paris, 1646); Stephen Jay Gould and Rhonda Roland Shearer, “Drawing the Maxim from the Minim: The Unrecognized Source of Nicéron’s Influence upon Duchamp,”Tout-Fait: The Marcel Duchamp Studies Online Journal 1, no. 3 (December 2000), argue that Duchamp is very likely to have also used Nicéron’s earlier French edition, which contains material not included in the Latin edition; see Jean-François Nicéron, La Perspective curieuse, ou magie artificielle des effets merveilleux (Paris, 1638) News <http://www.toutfait.com/duchamp.jsp?postid=896&keyword=>. For an interesting discussion of the ways in which epistemological perspective can affect the interpretation of data, see David Magnus, “Down the Primrose Path: Competing Epistemologies in Early Twentieth-Century Biology,” in Biology and Epistemology, ed. Richard Creath and Jane Maienschein (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) 91-121.

 

Footnote Return 66. For a discussion of Nicéron’s image, see Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990) 210-11; Kemp does not mention Duchamp or Tu m’. Nicéron’s illustration was also included in La perspective curieuse, pl. 33; see Kim H. Veltman, in collaboration with Kenneth D. Keele, Linear Perspective and the Visual Dimensions of Science and Art, Studies on Leonardo da Vinci I (Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1986) 164-65.

 

Footnote Return 67.For a discussion of this painting, see Jurgis Baltrušaitis, Anamorphic Art, trans. W. J. Strachan (New York: Abrams, 1977) 91-114; for interesting analyses of anamorphosis, see Fred Leeman, Hidden Images: Games of Perception, Anamorphic Art and Illusion from the Renaissance to the Present, trans. Ellyn Childs Allison and Margaret L. Kaplan (New York: Abrams, 1976); see also Kim H. Veltman, “Perspective, Anamorphosis, and Vision,” Marburger Jahrbuch für Kunstwissenshaft 21 (1986): 93-117.

 

Footnote Return 68.Holbein’s painting is discussed by Jacques Lacan, The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book XI: The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, ed. Jacques-Alain Miller; trans. Alan Sheridan (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1981) 88; see also Martin Jay, Downcast Eyes: The Denigration of Vision in Twentieth-Century French Thought (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1994) 48, 362-64; and Tom Conley, “The Wit of the Letter: Holbein’s Lacan,” in Vision in Context: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Sight, ed. Teresa Brennan and Martin Jay (New York and London: Routledge, 1996) 45-60.

 

Footnote Return 69.Dalia Judovitz, in a discussion of René Descartes’s interests in both “normal” and “aberrant” perspective systems, makes a similar point about Holbein’s image; see her essay “Vision, Representation, and Technology in Descartes,” in Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision, ed. David Michael Levin (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1993) 66-67. Judovitz discusses Tu m’ in her book Unpacking Duchamp: Art in Transit (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1995) 221-26, but does not discuss the painting’s anamorphic characteristics.

 

Footnote Return 70.Jean Clair, “Duchamp and the Classical Perspectivists,”Artforum 16 (March 1978): 40-49, the quote is from p. 47.

 

Footnote Return 71.Ibid., emphasis in the original; see also Clair’s essay, “Marcel Duchamp et la tradition des perspecteurs,” in Abécédaire, vol. 3, Marcel Duchamp catalogue (Paris: Centre National d’Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou, Musée National d’Art Moderne, 1977) 52-59.

 

Footnote Return 72.See Adcock, “Conventionalism in Henri Poincaré and Marcel Duchamp” (cited n. 20) 257.

 

Footnote Return 73. For an early discussion of these mathematicians in the context of art history, see William M. Ivins, Jr., “Desargues and Pascal,” chap. 8 in Art & Geometry: A Study in Space Intuitions (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1946).

 

Footnote Return 74.Morris Kline, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972) 285-301, 834-60; see also idem, “Projective Geometry,” in Mathematics in the Modern World, Readings fromScientific American, ed. Morris Kline (San Francisco and London: W. H. Freeman, 1968) 122-27.

 

Footnote Return 75.For an accessible source that refers to Poincaré in these terms, see Albert W. Tucker and Herbert S. Bailey, Jr., “Topology,” in Mathematics in the Modern World, Readings from Scientific American, ed. Morris Kline (San Francisco and London: W. H. Freeman, 1968) 134-40.

 

Footnote Return 76.Henri Poincaré, Mathematics and Science: Last Essays,trans. John W. Bolduc (New York: Dover, 1963) 58-59.

 

Footnote Return 77.Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 91.

 

 

Footnote Return 78.The complexities of the four-dimensional continuum are suggested by the following passage from the only note in the Green Box with a specific reference to a higher space (Duchamp’s term is “étendue 4” in the original French): “As there is gradually less differentiation from axis to axis, i.e., as all the axes gradually disappear in a fading verticality, the front and the back, the reverse and the obverse acquire a circular significance: the right and the left, which are the four arms of the front and the back, melt along the verticals. The interior and exterior (in a four-dimensional continuum) can receive a similar identification.” See Duchamp, Salt Seller (cited n. 2) 29; idem, Duchamp du Signe (cited n. 18) 45.

 

Footnote Return 79.A modern way of putting this matter would be to say: “Two planes having a common point have at least one more common point. If this is satisfied, the space must be three-dimensional; if it is not satisfied, so that there are two planes with a unique common point, then the space is at least four-dimensional.” Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, s.v. “Higher-Dimensional Geometry,” by A. D. Aleksandrov. For a more sophisticated definition, see H. S. M. Coxeter, Introduction to Geometry (New York and London: John Wiley & Sons, 1961) 185-86.

 

Footnote Return 80.There are a large number of possibilities. One of the textbooks that I have on my shelves begins with the following statement: “From the beginnings of geometry until well into the nineteenth century it was almost universally accepted that the geometry of the space we live in is the only geometry conceivable by man. This point of view was most eloquently formulated by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Ironically, shortly after Kant’s death the discovery of non-Euclidean geometry by Gauss, Lobachevski, and Bolyai made his position untenable. Today, we study in mathematics not just one geometry, or two geometries, but an infinity of geometries.” Albrecht Beutelspacher and Ute Rosenbaum, Projective Geometry: From Foundations to Applications(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) 1.

 

Footnote Return 81.For one of the best discussions of the kinds of issues this statement raises, see Graham Nerlich, The Shape of Space, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

 

Footnote Return 82.

A generalized mathematical “surface” is a “manifold” and can have any number of dimensions. It can also have any number of curvatures. This important way of thinking about geometrical configurations is due to Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866) and is customarily referred to as “Riemannian Geometry.” This sense of “Riemannian Geometry” can be distinguished from the sense used to refer to his prior invention of a specific (ungeneralized) non-Euclidean geometry with constant positive curvature, customarily referred to as “Riemann Geometry” or elliptical geometry; see Peter Petersen, Riemannian Geometry (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1998). In a questionaire about the Three Standard Stoppages in the archives of the Museum of Modern Art in New York dated 1953 (the year the work entered their collection), Duchamp said that the assemblage was “a humorous application of Riemann’s post-Euclidean geometry which was devoid of straight lines” (see Naumann, cited n. 12, p. 170). That Duchamp used the term “post-Euclidean,” rather than simply “non-Euclidean,” indicates that he may very well have been sophisticated enough to have understood the distinctions under discussion here.

 

Figs. 20-22
©2003 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

Response to “Windows in My Village”

Dear Jim Hausman,

Please send us photographs of your local French windows. We’re interested.

Below, you’ll find two illustrations (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, pp. 1024, 1025) from De Chiara, Joseph, Julius Panero and Martin Zelnik (eds.) Time Saver Standards for Interior Design and Space Saving (New York, McGraw-Hill, 1991). These refernces are among those that led me to my claim that French windows swing outwards. Please note captions and text below:

click images to enlarge

  • Outswinging casement sash
    Figure 3
    Outswinging casement sash.
    Cross Sections: A, head jamb;
    B,meeting styles; C,
    side jambs; D, sill.
  • Solid-section steel outswinging
casement sash
    Figure 4
    Solid-section steel outswinging
    casement sash. Cross sections:
    A, head jamb; B,
    side jamb; C, sill.

In the book History of Interior Design and Furniture (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1997), author Robbie G. Blakemore writes that starting in the second half of the 17thcentury, windows “sometimes rose from the floor to almost ceiling level and had double valves (sometimes termed French windows), in which the casements pivoted from the jamb […] When wood frames replaced the stone transoms and mullions and with rectangular panes it was possible for the casements to open outward.” (p. 164).

©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

Windows in My Village


click to enlarge
Fresh
Widow, 1920 (back)
Fresh
Widow, 1920 (front)
Figure 1
Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp, Fresh
Widow
, 1920 (back)
Marcel Duchamp, Fresh
Widow
, 1920 (front)

To Rhonda Roland Shearer –

Contrary to your comment on “Fresh Widow,” French windows *do* open in — that way the shutters can open out!

Jim Hausman
resident of Chavenay, France

Just a Thought: Duchamp and Spencer

Dear Tout-Fait,

Duchamp, in a communication to Katherine Dreier in Paris, once sent a subtly altered photograph of a seemingly typical bar scene. On examination, spatial relationships were “out of whack” when referred to any rational floor plan. This may anticipate the work of the mathematician Donald Spencer (1912-2001) on systematic distortions of complex assemblages. Duchamp fooled the untutored eye by rearranging the spatial context in such a way that a non-visual logic replaced the logic of perspective (but in a superficially undetectable way). Such an alteration is, of course, reversible. This answers the requirement of reversibility in any complex distortion, which, in effect, is an operation for which an equation can be written. I wonder if any relationship could be traced between Duchamp’s anticipatory work and the later, formal work of Spencer and other geometers.

With best wishes to all,

Timothy Phillips

Transfiguring Triviality

In his response to Jean Clair’s article, Arthur Danto makes a reference to Hegel by way of introduction; “It is true that in Hegel’s view, art is a superceded moment of Absolute Spirit, and it is in this sense that Hegel famously pronounces the end of art. Its mission, in Hegel’s system, is to be taken over by metaphysics.” It is not entirely obvious how this fits into the context of twentieth century art after Duchamp.

In another paragraph (which I have mercilessly truncated) Danto says: “Closing the gap between art and life .. Pop refused to countenance a distinction between fine and commercial, or between high and low art. …nothing an artist made could carry meanings more profound than those evoked by everyday garments, fast food, car parts, street signs. Each of these efforts aimed at bringing art down to earth, and transfiguring, through artistic consciousness, what everyone already knows.”


click to enlarge

Andy Warhol,Marylin Monroe

Figure 1
Andy Warhol,
Marylin Monroe
, 1967

Warhol’s approach was to appropriate something (a graphic design) that was already art (though categorized as “commercial art”) and offer it as high, avant-garde, fine, or “business” art (take your pick of terms). Thus the only thing the context changed was the price…and the “autograph.” Instead of appreciating the value of the label as art (sending us out to grocery store shelves to “collect” it for a few dollars) the result only reaffirmed the power of the art-world to assign arbitrary value and make it believable.

If “nothing an artist made could carry meanings more profound ‘than events or objects from everyday life'” (a suggestion Duchamp once made on viewing a propeller) and if these are things “everyone already knows” what is this “artistic consciousness” that we seem to need to “transfigure” …. why does it need transfiguring anyway? Do we need artists to tell us what we already know?

Is it possible that by closing the gap between art and life it is art that becomes irrelevant? If art cannot provide an insight into life, a fresh view of the quotidian or a clarification of its value and meaning….if it just shows it to us and asks us to celebrate its dull uniformity, glossy chic or garish banality as it is -and as the best life can offer-why would we need art at all? Danto says; “I saw it as the task of aesthetics to show how to distinguish art works from real things when there was no visible or palpable difference between them.” But haven’t we already arrived at the position that now there is no difference? “Art” is indistinguishable from any other commercial product or media sensation except as a speculative or investment vehicle for the very rich.

There have been many moments in the art of both East and West when artists called attention to everyday life and common objects. In every case either our attention was directed to something important about them, something uncommonly noticed, or their use as material transformed by the artist into a newly insightful event. In no case was the value seen to inhere in their triviality. It is a bit ironic that the distinctly non-trivial work of Duchamp has been used as pretext by generations of artists intent on making triviality a career path. The trivial has not been transfigured but everything else, even rage and disgust, has been trivialized. But then, as Danto has pointed out before, art has ended. It has not, however, become metaphysics.

Kirk Hughey
kirkparis1@aol.com

The Up-Side-Down Evidence for the Non-Determination of the Morphology of the Draft Pistons

Dear Tout-Fait,


click to enlarge
signed
version of Draft Pistons
Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp,signed
version of Draft Pistons, 1914
unsigned version of
Draft Pistons
Figure 2
Marcel Duchamp,
unsigned version of
Draft Pistons, 1914

With regard to the two extant Draft Piston photographs which are supposed to determine the shapes of the three openings in the Milky Way, it seems to me that Duchamp’s signature and dating of one of these photographs has authorized a certain orientation which has been accepted too uncritically.

For a long time there was, I thought, something a bit peculiar about these two photographic prints (the way they were always reproduced). They didn’t read correctly. More visible in some reproductions than in others can be seen two spindly hooks attached to the gauze or netting. But – as reproduced – these hooks are at the base of the photographs.

Also, the lighting in the photographs didn’t seem to be right. If, as Duchamp later recalled, these photographs were made at an open window (perhaps in May 1915 on the top floor of 23, Rue St. Hippolyte?), then the shadows and the way the natural light falls are all wrong – but not if you turn the photographs upside-down. I believe Duchamp signed and dated one of these photographs upside-down with intent, perhaps inferring that the signature doesn’t necessarily orientate the work – or rather, can perhaps authorize (as in authorizations of the Bride) a certain dis-orientation (Discuss!).

Incidentally, as 23 Rue St. Hippolyte was still under construction when Duchamp moved there in 1913, I don’t think it would be too far-fetched to presume that the enclosure directing the currents of air – within which the netting or gauze appears to be hung – is a section of ventilation or central-heating duct [see also: Linda Dalrymple Henderson,Duchamp in Context, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998)].

Yours in an-artism,

Glenn Harvey
15 The Green
Mistley
Manningtree
Essex CO11 1EU
UK

Figs. 1, 2
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.

RR, Art, Ah!

Duchamp’s ‘R’s

The prevalence of excessive “R”s in Duchamp’s œuvre may seem to hold a clue for those who care, or “ose”—-dare, to look. After all a Frenchman struggling with the English language might pronounce those “Rs” as “arse” a term which refers in colloquial English speech to a measure of daring. Duchamp so loved to use colloquial speech and puns. And to all accounts he loved, as the Americans say, to “get some arse,” his pursuit of the ladies being legendary.

The influence of Raymond Roussel on Duchamp is often cited but not sufficiently documented. The double R’s of Raymond Roussel’s initials figure into Duchamp’s female pseudonym: Rrose Sélavy.(1) This name could be a conscious tribute to Roussel, Duchamp here giving him life. Rrose Sélavy / Roussel, la vie–Roussel, life. This could be a measure of his respect for Roussel.


click to enlarge
Marcel Duchamp,
Tonsure
Figure 1
Marcel Duchamp,
Tonsure, 1919
 50 cc
of Paris Air
Figure 2
Marcel
Duchamp, 50 cc
of Paris Air
, 1919

One of Roussel’s later plays was called L’Etoile au Frontthe Star on the Forehead. Duchamp’s famous haircut in which he had a star cut into the hair on the back of his head may be a joke in which he has reversed the forehead, in French “le front,” or in English pronunciation, the “front” of his head, for the back.

The significance of Duchamp claiming to be a “breather” is also connected to Roussel and the excessive “R.” The word “hair” when pronounced with a heavy French accent “air” is a homophony to the French pronunciation of the letter “R”–Roussel’s initials, RR. Every time Duchamp evokes an “R” he is evoking not only Roussel, his own haircut, but also the “Air” which he so relished.(2)

Duchamp’s gift to Walter Arensberg of a glass phial of Air de Paris continues the trail. The French pronunciation of the letter “R” is also a homophony of the word “err” to wander, stray or to err in the English sense of making an error. The “Air de Paris ” Air of Paris that Duchamp gave Arensberg in the United States does in fact err, or wander, from Paris–“Air / err de Paris.” Duchamp, as an expatriate, had also wandered from Paris–“il err de Paris”–he wanders/strays from Paris. There is also a lexical link between Air de Paris and Duchamp’s later Monte Carlo gambling spree. This lexical link continues as “Paris” is not only the name of a city but the plural of the noun “pari” which means in English–“bet” or “wager.” Duchamp’s “Air/Err de Paris,” the “error of bets” prefigures his recognition of his Monte Carlo betting spree as an error of judgement.

Returning to Duchamp’s gift to Arensberg, “Air de Paris,” we have established that the words “Air” and the French pronunciation of the letter “R” are homophones. “Air/R de Paris.” If we substitute the English pronunciation of the letter “R” for the French pronunciation of the same letter “R,” which is pronounced the same as the English word “Air,” we can see a further correlation. The letter “R” when pronounced in English is also the equivalent of the French pronunciation of the word “art,” the “t” being silent. Hence in substituting the French pronunciation of the letter “R” = English “Air” with the English pronunciation of the letter “R” = French “Art,” we have, instead of “Air de Paris,” “Art de Paris.” This is in fact what Duchamp gave Arensberg. “Art” from Paris, which was Air. Equivalences.

Looking once again at Duchamp’s use of the double “R” of Roussel’s initials we can, in applying a similar cross linguistic procedure to the interpretation of this usage, extrapolate from the “Rr” of Rrose Selavy–in English/French pronunciation “Art err”(3)–Art errs. Or Art (with a capital A–high art) errs or wanders–Art/R errs/r–ose Selavy–ose, c’est la vie–dare, that’s life. Art has entered into life. Similarly one can extrapolate Art/air–ose c’est la vie. Art/air–dare that’s life. Art and the air of life are equivalent. Dare to breathe.

Duchamp may have made a further comment on the status of art through his use of the double “R.” In a reference to Jarry he says “Arrhe is to art what merdre is to merde.”(4)Arrhe–from the (feminine) word for a (monetary) deposit–arrhes, and art, similarly tomerdre and merde, are homophones in French. Duchamp’s cynical interpretation of the relation between art, money and shit/shitte is here presented succinctly. Jarry’s “merdre” is similar to money in the bank, a deposit or “arrhe” and “art” is placed similarly to shit. “Arrhe” and “art” are in French homophones with the English pronunciation of the letter “R.” There is a further stress on the letter “R” with the redundant “R” in Jarry’s neologism “merdre.”(5) This redundant “R” recalls the redundant “R” of Rrose. It seems Duchamp’s stress on the redundant “R/art” may be a cynical statement about the status of art. If the redundant “R/art” (from “merdre”) is placed similarly to “arrhe” or cash in the bank what would we deduce from this? That this type of monetarily motivated art is shit?

Enough about “R”s “arse” and their extrapolations. Maybe we have wandered too far or maybe we just err and its time to find some fresh air.


Notes

Footnote Return 1. Other commentators– including Thierry de Duve in his Kant and Duchamp (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996); and André Gervais in La Raie Alitée d’Effets have noted the similarity between Rrose Sélavy and Roussel.

Footnote Return 2. George Bauer playfully expounds some of these correlations in his article entitled “Roussel– Duchamp” inLa Quinzaine Litteraire, no. 407 (1983): 14–15. He does not however make the front/back connection.

Footnote Return 3. French conjugation of the verb to err or wander.

Footnote Return 4. Marcel Duchamp, Duchamp du signe (Paris: Flammarion, 1994). “Arrhe est à art ce que merdre est
à merde.”

Footnote Return 5. The second “r” is redundant. The word is pronounced similarly to the French word for shit.

Figs. 1, 2
©2002 Succession Marcel Duchamp, ARS, N.Y./ADAGP, Paris. All rights reserved.